Paid subscribers will not be charged until sometime after the pause is lifted. Free subscribers won’t be impacted. New free signups may continue for anyone who isn’t already subscribed, so they can be notified when things are back on track.

Articles will resume when I’m able to do so. I’ll end the pause when I have a queue of multiple articles lined up. The content must flow. Until then, have a good Memorial Day weekend, frens.

—Apollo, May 2023

***

UPDATE:

This pause has gone on much longer than planned, but we’ll get back to it soon. Promise. I have dozens of drafts. Just a few more things to finish up—I’m writing another book and getting married this Spring.

—Apollo, February 2024

Ancient era

As humans (and Denisovans) spread out from Africa, they entered South Asia between 75,000 and 30,000 years ago, possibly around the time of the hypothesized Toba eruption. Like all other cultures, art began with cave paintings [PDF] and rock carvings; including those at the Bhimbetka rock shelters, dating as far back as 8,000 BC.

Agriculture began around 7,000 BC. Early cultures included the Mehrgarh and Hakra Ware; they created baskets, simple tools, jewelry, terracotta figurines, pottery, and copper goods, with houses built from mud bricks.

Upon entering the Bronze Age, India’s main culture was that of the Indus Valley Civilization (Harappan culture) lasting about 3300-1300 BC. Unusually, they had less interest in art than other civilizations around the world, such as the Egyptians and Minoans. They didn’t create vast works like pyramids, palaces, or megaliths. Still, they had advanced cities for the time. This included wells, drainage systems, early sewers, warehouses, metallurgy, a system of weights and measures, and grid-based urban planning.

The Indus Valley peoples may have developed an early writing system, but as it remains undeciphered, we aren’t sure if it’s language or merely groups of symbols.

Their art remained relatively simple and small-scale, with some Mesopotamian parallels.

By 1300-1200 BC, the Indus Valley civilization had largely collapsed, with most of the population migrating to the east. It’s thought that drought, and perhaps a decline in trade with the Near East, contributed to this collapse. Indo-European migrations coincide with this time as another factor in cultural evolution.

Vedic era

Iron Age India, also known as the Vedic period, lasted approximately 1500-300 BC (exact time frame varies by region, source, and classification). This era isn’t well-known for its art, and anthropomorphic depictions don’t exist at all. The region was dominated by small competing kingdoms with their own ideas of how things should go. The Iron Age here is most important as the origin of Hinduism (the Vedas), Jainism, and the caste system.

We don’t know much about post-Indus Valley art. Archeology has uncovered very little, so South Asian cultures either dropped art as something important to them, or they moved to wood and textiles. Possibly both—the Indus Valley civilization already established a precedent for giving art a low importance in life. We can basically skip the entire early Iron Age, up to the Buddhist Era.

Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama) is thought to have lived around 566-400 BC; all written records of his life came long after his death, so getting to specifics is tricky. In any case, the founding of Buddhism soon had a massive impact on world history and art.

Indo-Aryan migrants began settling the island of Ceylon (later called Sri Lanka) in the 400s, although it could’ve had a strong human presence as early as 600 BC.

Art picked up with India’s first major empire, the Mauryan Empire (322-185 BC), which came directly after Alexander the Great introduced Greek and Persian ideas to the region in 326 BC. Hellenistic art and culture had the greatest impact on Northern India, while the Mauryan government was based partly on Persian systems. Significant stonework was taken up, including rock-cut architecture like Barabar Caves, although not much has survived to the present day.

The Mauryan Empire, in some ways, cemented an “Indian” style of depicting the world. You can see its influence on later works.

Also see: the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom and Indo-Greek Kingdom. 

After King Ashoka the Great converted to Buddhism around 260-250 BC, it spread widely across Asia, and Buddha statues eventually became commonplace. He promoted both art and science under what some consider a Golden Age. After Ashoka’s death though, the empire went into decline. It fell in 185 BC after the assassination of its last king. India then fragmented into regional dynasties like the Shunga (185-72 BC) and Satavahana (100 BC - 200 AD).

Nature spirits (Yakshas) became a popular theme in art around this time. Cult images included large statues, usually about seven feet tall. (Side note: an early decimal system was also developed, which spread to the Islamic world before later entering the West). 

Classical era

As we move from BC to AD, we enter India’s “Classical Age,” which is usually given as 250-500 AD. The era included various empires and dynasties:

• Gupta Empire (c. 320–650 CE) which is also the “Golden Age” of India

• Later Gupta dynasty (c. 490–750 CE)

• Vakataka Empire (c. 250–500 CE)

• Pallava Empire (c. 275–901 CE)

• Kadamba dynasty (c. 345–1347 CE)

• Western Ganga dynasty (c. 350–1024 CE)

• Vishnukundina Empire (c. 420–624 CE)

• Maitraka dynasty (c. 475–776 CE)

• Rai dynasty (c. 489–632 CE)

Sculpture picked up and early Hindu temples began construction. There may have been other art forms which were equally popular, but few to no examples have survived to the present day. India also remained fragmented for a long time, with different regional styles and preferences developing over time, so there isn’t any one style to point to.

The Gupta period is regarded as especially notable, including the Ajanta and Udayagiri caves. Both would’ve taken countless hours to carve from the earth, and may have taken decades.

The Gupta period is sometimes called “the Golden Age of classical Hinduism.”

Medieval and Modern era

India’s Medieval period began after this “classical age,” around 600 AD, and ended with the establishment of the Mughal Empire in 1526. That same year, Sikhism was founded by Guru Nanak (a Sikh Empire later existed from 1799-1839). But first:

The Chola Empire was established around 850 AD, leading to a Golden Age of Tamil culture with strides in literature and architecture. They conquered Sri Lanka in 1017-1019 AD and their empire’s influence was at its greatest extent soon after, extending as far as modern-day Malaysia.

Also see: the intricate art of the Chaulukya dynasty (940-1244 AD) of Western India.

Islamic forces took an interest in South Asia throughout most of India’s Medieval era. First as trade partners and in small communities, then intermittent military campaigns. Things picked up around 1000-1200 and regional sultanates were eventually established. The Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526) was one of the most influential of these. For example, construction of Qutb Minar, and the tallest minaret in the world. 

The earliest sultans had an uneasy rule—most of their power was concentrated in small areas, rebels struck back, and the next sultan was often decided by force. Almost half of the Delhi Sultanate’s rulers were assassinated and even slaves took the throne. India eventually returned to a state of several warring kingdoms, which created a window of opportunity for the Mughals. New technology—gunpowder and cannons—inflicted great losses on Indian forces, like in the 1527 Battle of Khanwa. 

Mughal art is best known for the world-famous Taj Mahal completed in 1654. Other accomplishments included switching to a new solar calendar (the Muslims had a lunar calendar) and the Red Fort at Delhi.

The Mughal Empire began declining around 1712, facing internal power struggles and competition from the rising Maratha Empire (among other issues). Colonial powers had also taken great interest in South Asia. The British East India Company in particular had a strong presence, and began taking control of Mughal areas in 1757-1773. This ended after the Indian Rebellion of 1857, although India remained under British rule until after World War II. Mahatma Ghandi was assassinated in 1948 and India became a republic in 1950.

Islam’s influence can still be seen in South Asian art and architecture. Culturally, it’s especially strong in modern-day Pakistan, which was split from British India in 1947.

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Most people view this as a mere story, although many believe it to be true.

According to the 2020–2021 Chapman University Survey of American Fears, 49% of Americans believe in “advanced ancient civilizations such as Atlantis.” Interestingly, this was divided among racial lines, with the highest belief among Asian Americans and lowest among non-Hispanic whites. This may be related to the idea of Lemuria or Mu in the Indian/Pacific Ocean, although these are much more recent than the legend of Atlantis so it’s doubtful there’s any “traditional” link.

Most stories do contain a kernel of truth though. Was there a historical basis for this?

Side note: there are countless books which discuss Atlantis. I haven’t read any. Anyone interested in a deep dive should probably check out one of them. This Substack article is just me thinking out loud based on what I’ve seen and read thus far.

The Source of the Legend 

The issue is that we have a singular source regarding Atlantis: Plato (428-347 BC) who claims to be quoting Solon (638-559 BC). Since Solon died long before Plato was born, the alleged story may have errors or fabrications even if we take it to be true. Passing down a story through the generations, even in an oratory culture, can lead to misunderstandings.

According to one source, the word ‘Atlantis’ first appears in Hesiod’s Theogony (~700 BC), although I couldn’t verify this in any of the translations I checked. One translation mentioned “Atlantid(es), the daughter(s) of Atlas” and that’s about it. Hellanicus of Lesbos (490-405 BC) used similar language. 

Herodotus (484-425 BC) has a few potentially-linked phrases in Histories, but no specific evidence for or against Atlantis is present. One translation of 1:203 says “the sea beyond the pillars of Heracles, which they call Atlantic,” which some translate as ‘Atlantis’ (a bit of a stretch). In 4:184 he mentions a group of people called the Atlantes, named after the nearby Atlas Mountain in Libya. There is no mention of a great civilization there, only that the people are vegans who mine salt and don’t dream in their sleep.

The first real reference comes from Plato’s Timaeus (360 BC) and Critias (360-347 BC). This was theoretically meant to be a trilogy, concluding with Hermocrates, which was never published—either unfinished or Plato died before beginning to work on it.

• Timaeus: https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1572 

• Critias: https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1571

Critias is incomplete, with its later parts lost to history. We have about 11 pages (less than 7,000 words) of content. Timaeus on the other hand, is over 100 pages and has a higher word count than many novels.

The story goes as such:

Poseidon had five pairs of twins with a woman from Atlantis, and dwelt with them on a small mountain. He eventually surrounded this mountain with moat-like concentric circles of water “so that no man could get to the island for ships and voyages were not yet heard of.” The people of Atlantis later expanded on this natural formation with walls, bridges, canals, and more. Each of the twins became a king in his own right, with 10 kingdoms eventually existing under the banner of Atlantis, which may have been the capital city of a widespread empire, or one island divided into 10 pieces. Atlantis was a utopian place, with its citizens full of excellence and virtue, yet over time fell into corruption and decay, waging war against Athens at one point. The Atlanteans supposedly conquered areas of Libya, Egypt, and Italy, before their civilization was struck down.

Aristotle believed that Plato invented Atlantis, similar to the invented society of The Republic. He’s considered a reliable source since he’s one of the few people to have studied under Plato. But no one in ancient times seems to have taken a strong stance one way or another. After ancient times, Plato’s works weren’t popular in the Middle Ages compared to those of Aristotle. Most of his works weren’t even translated until after the fall of Constantinople in 1453 AD. Opinions about Atlantis were scarce before then.

The events of the story allegedly took place 9,000 years before the story itself, or close to 9,500 BC (coinciding with the Younger Dryas Impact Theory popularized by authors like Graham Hancock). However, Greek people didn’t even exist then, let alone Athens. (Athens was probably founded around 3500 BC as a basic settlement, expanding over time, and by 1400 BC included a Mycenaean fortress). 9,000 years ago,humanity was still figuring out agriculture. The first cities didn’t rise until about 4,000 BC.

More:

If Critias meant to say 900 years instead of 9,000, that would make more sense, as it’d line up with the Mediterranean Bronze Age Collapse of ~1200 BC. The pre-Greek cultures of the Minoans and Mycenaeans were definitely significant and both underwent rapid collapses.

The Location of Atlantis 

It’s supposed to be a land beyond the Strait of Gibraltar, potentially in the Atlantic Ocean, if not near it. Several islands could be remnants of a “lost continent,” according to some people. Atlantis was most likely on an island, although Ancient Greek has multiple possible translations. One source claimed Plato/Solon could’ve meant island, promontory, peninsula, coastline, or continental land surrounded by water (lakes, rivers, or springs).

The "Pillars of Hercules" are one named landmark, except no one is sure where they are. This could refer to the Strait of Gibraltar or the Laconian Gulf.

Plausible locations include the Azores Islands or Minoan islands (Crete, Santorini, etc.)

Jimmy of Bright Insight believes Atlantis is the Richat Structure in Mauritania, Africa. I doubt this is the case, but he does mention some interesting parallels. One of Jimmy’s stronger points against Atlantis being a myth is that the story supposedly came from Egyptian records. Solon named the temple which served as his source, and while it no longer exists today, it still stood in Plato’s time. Anyone who doubted the story of Atlantis could have personally gone to Egypt to double-check the alleged records. Why would Plato make something up where he shares information on how to fact-check him? And why would Plato go into such great detail, including mentioning that the city of Atlantis was built with stones of three different colors?

Some early explorers and historians, after Columbus returned to Europe in 1493 AD, believed that the newly-discovered Americas were the Atlantis of legend (such as Fracisco Lopez de Gomara and Sir Francis Bacon).

A few people place Atlantis as far as the Caribbean (including theories about Bimini Road) or Antarctica (impossible since the continent never had a full-time human presence). Antarctic advocates correctly point out that Antarctica was once connected to other continents (Pangea) and covered with vegetation. Except it drifted apart long before modern humans existed (30-60 million years ago, after the extinction of dinosaurs) and ice covered the continent by 3-15 million years ago (destroying any life which would’ve remained). The first confirmed human footprint on mainland Antarctica dates to 1853 AD. While Antarctica can be suspicious at times, prehistoric humans never lived there, much less flourished into a globe-spanning civilization that could’ve impacted ancient Greek philosophy.

Most people don’t put Atlantis too far north because that’s moreso the realm of Thule (introduced by Pytheas around 330 BC) or Hyperborea.

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Arguments from skeptics

Atlantis skeptics bring up three main points as rebuttal:

1. There is no direct archeological evidence of Atlantis; the burden of proof is on the advocates 

2. Ancient written records are unreliable, incomplete, and/or contradictory

3. The idea is likely allegorical or metaphorical because it takes place within the context of a larger story

It’s effectively up to what one believes to be true. There isn’t much evidence for either side.

“It’s fiction, nobody cares” is the most boring explanation though.

Real events which may be related

The legend of Atlantis, even if wholly fictional, may have been inspired by true events. Large disasters include:

• Toba eruption (76,000 BC)

  • This is unlikely to be involved; despite its alleged massive impact on humanity, it predates writing and even the development of coherent language. Although a traumatic event for sure, nearly wiping us out if the theory is to be believed, it’s difficult to consider that a story from so long ago would have survived the ages.

• Neanderthal and Denisovan extinction

  • We now know that Neanderthals were much more sophisticated than stereotypes dictate. However, they predate European modern human cultures by too large of a time gap, and they didn’t build cities or have advanced technology. There weren’t “Neanderthal civilizations,” and like the alleged Toba eruption, is too old of an event.

• Melting glaciers in the Younger Dryas causing flooding (12,000-11,000 BC)

  • This is more often tied to global Flood Myths like the story of Noah’s Ark and Epic of Gilgamesh, although the tellings of such myths aren’t thought to be older than 2,000-1,600 BC.

  • Also see: Meltwater pulse 1A (12,000 BC) and its related occurrences, which significantly raised global sea level

  • Graham Hancock’s “Ancient Apocalypse” show covers this in more detail, as do his books and interviews.

• Black Sea deluge hypothesis (7,000-5,000 BC)

  • This is around the time when agricultural societies began to develop in Greece and Europe as a whole. The Mediterranean in particular was strongly influenced by the Cardium pottery culture (Italy, 6500-5500 BC), as well as Dimini (Greece, 5000-3000 BC) and Vinca (Balkans, 6000-4500 BC), among others. It’s possible that multiple cultures had a story of disaster from this time. Bronze Age Greece didn’t begin until around 3200 BC.

  • Doggerland also finished disappearing around this time (the region formerly connecting the British Isles with mainland Europe).

• Various volcanic eruptions (9,000-500 BC) including the Minoan eruption (1,600-1,500 BC, perhaps 1628 BC)

  • The Minoans were quite advanced for a Bronze Age civilization, including the use of indoor plumbing and primitive HVAC. The palace of Knossos had over 1,000 rooms and at least one section was five stories high. They were a seafaring people with sophisticated art, later overtaken by the more warlike culture of the Mycenaeans—potentially a source of the “corruption” as mentioned in the Atlantis tale.

  • The height of Minoan prosperity is considered to be 1650-1450 BC, after which various Cretan palaces and settlements were destroyed. Mycenaean Greeks invaded, and the Minoan culture went into decline before their final downfall during the Bronze Age Collapse.

• Bronze Age Collapse (1,200 BC)

  • The battle of Troy is set around this time according to legend (I’ll have more on this topic later)

  • The mysterious “Sea Peoples” could be inspiration for Atlantis, since Plato’s text mentions invasions focused on the eastern Mediterranean. The Sea Peoples were also never heard from again. However, I’m not aware of any evidence for Sea Peoples attacking Athens, which was a Mycenaean city at the time anyway.

  • I’ll have an article specifically about the Bronze Age Collapse “soon.”

Earthquakes and tsunamis destroyed a number of Mediterranean cities, including that of Helike in 373 BC. Plato lived between 428 and 347 BC, and the alleged source of his information is Solon (638-558 BC), so it couldn’t have been any disaster younger than these.

Personally I think the Minoans were the basis for Atlantis alongside some creative liberties. Atlantis’ war against Athens could be based on the Sea Peoples (1200 BC) with their eventual disappearance attributed to the Minoan eruption (1600 BC) or the Mycenaeans overtaking the Minoans.

Conclusion

There’s a ton of debate on this topic. There isn’t much to go by, so this is all purely hypothetical and amounts to a thought experiment. Our sole reference is an incomplete work from a philosopher who wrote from the perspective of someone descended from a man who heard a story from someone translating ancient records which no longer exist… it’s a tough sell.

People are free to debate or look for the fabled city but I frankly don’t have much interest in doing tons of research; my time can be put to better use elsewhere. Perhaps Atlantis will be discovered, and one day turn from myth into fact, like the city of Troy. Or it’ll remain fictional like the city of El Dorado. 

In either case, there isn’t any Atlantean art to speak of, so there isn’t much for me to do here.

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In a nutshell, Western civilization refers broadly to an inherited set of cultural norms stemming from early Mediterranean and Mesopotamian civilizations, solidifying under the wide-ranging Roman Empire. A common heritage is a uniting factor which makes intercultural communication more efficient, among other benefits.

What is “the West”?

“The West” originated as a simple geographic determinant for Europe, primarily its Mediterranean regions which advanced more quickly than other areas of Europe. Everything east of Europe and the Caucuses was “The East” including the Near East (Western Asia) and Far East (China, Japan, etc.) The Americas weren’t known at the time. There is disagreement over an exact definition, especially now that “West” refers to a global culture instead of pure geography. Some people use it as a stand-in for “Europe and those of European descent” but that involves genetics.

Western civilization is a blend of ancient Greek culture, the Roman Empire, Medieval Christianity, and several smaller influences (ranging from prehistoric times to the present day). This includes ethical and philosophical views, legal systems, concepts of democracy and individual liberty, Christian beliefs, scientific innovation, technological progress, artistic styles, architectural standards, language and alphabet, and more. Despite regional differences (such as national cuisines or sports) Western cultures all retain enough similarities to be grouped under the same umbrella. They use the same foundational elements, like branches of a family tree, or literary and musical subgenres.

Greece is often called “the birthplace of Western civilization.” The beginning can be placed around 800-700 BC with the first Olympic games, Homer, and Hesiod. Art, culture, science, and philosophy all flourished in ancient Mediterranean civilizations, especially under “Classical Greece” (around 500 BC to 323 BC). The foundations for all of modern Western civilization were laid before the death of Alexander the Great.

The Roman Empire is arguably where the most consolidation and evolution occurred. The Roman Republic was established in 509 BC and the first Roman Emperor began his reign in 27 BC. At its height, the empire controlled most of Europe and the Near East, with especially heavy integration with Greece. Although it fell, there are many arguments over when. Late Rome also brought in Germanic tribes and Christianity, both of which became major influences.

By some accounts, the empire lasted until 1452 AD (fall of the Byzantine Empire) or 1806 AD (dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire). Art movements like the Carolingian Renaissance (800-900), European Renaissance (1300-1600) and Neoclassicism (1750-1850) aided repeated revivals of ancient Greco-Roman ideals.

Some people view the United States of America as a new Roman Empire, or its successor, given the Roman influence upon America’s founding, and its current cultural and military influence upon the world. It’s no secret that our Founding Fathers drew upon the rich heritage of Western history to create this nation. Doomers say we’re on the precipice of collapse and call for the change or abolishment of many traditions, lest we follow the Roman Empire into oblivion, despite our differences. It isn’t our traditions that are the cause of our problems, though—it’s the desperate and misguided attempts to escape from them, all for the sake of “progress.”

“The West” is basically every thought and invention that contributed to European civilization and the civilizations which spawned from it.

What is “civilization”?

Civilization is simply defined as a high level of societal organization with advanced culture, science, government, and industry. Chimpanzees for example, despite a level of sophistication and intelligence, don’t have civilization—they don’t build cities, trade routes, or windmills, nor do they have oil paintings or kings. They’re a primitive species still driven primarily by base instinct.

The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica has an interesting in-depth take: “...the metamorphosis from beast-like savage to cultured civilian may be proximally explained (certain potentialities and attributes of the species being taken for granted) as the result of accumulated changes that found their initial impulses in a half-dozen or so of practical inventions.” This includes the invention of speech and writing, fire and cooking, bow and arrow, pottery, and domestication of animals. This led to roads, cities, greater social and political organization, literature, science, and beyond: “...man at the highest stages of culture will be, even as was the savage, a seeker after the greatest attainable degree of comfort.for the least necessary expenditure of energy. The pursuit of this ideal has been from first to last the ultimate impelling force in nature urging man forward.“

Of education, it says: “Many definitions have been given of the word ‘education,’ but underlying them all is the conception that it denotes an attempt on the part of the adult members of a human society to shape the development of the coming generation in accordance with its own ideals of life… we may say with Plato that the aim of education is ‘to develop in the body and in the soul all the beauty and all the perfection of which they are capable,’ but this leaves quite undecided the nature and form of that beauty and perfection… change in culture ideals means change in the specific form of the goal of education, and consequently the paths of educative effort need readjustment.”

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Why is Western civilization important?

Consider the above—Western civilization is over 2,500 years of cumulative knowledge and spirit. We’ve inherited a vast array of useful traditions, values, and ideas, and we’re the legacy of those who came before us. We have access to many of the greatest minds of every generation, stretching back to the dawn of humanity. Why wouldn’t that be important?

This applies to non-Western civilizations as well, which have their own unique viewpoints and cultures. Willingly erasing your brightest minds from your past is a slow-motion suicide. Maintaining cultural diversity around the globe is a way for each culture to honor the accomplishments of those who paved the way for new generations to exist. I focus more on Western civilization because that’s what I’m most familiar with as a Westerner.

It’s especially important in contemporary times, which are riddled with garbage philosophies like deconstructivism and postmodernism. To them, we can throw away values, ethical systems, culture—the past doesn’t matter—these are wasteful and nihilistic viewpoints. You can’t know who you are without knowing where you’ve been.

Vocal movements demand the destruction of Western civilization. Go on any social media platform and it doesn’t take long to find someone saying an aspect of our culture needs to be “dismantled” or obliterated. It’s about power and control for them. But let’s say activists have a point, and are successful–what would they replace our shared heritage with? Clones of the failed “mostly peaceful” CHOP/CHAZ (Capitol Hill Autonomous Zone)?

Those who demand an end to Western civilization don’t have good alternatives. And as they push their demands further and further, more cracks develop in the fabric of societal bonds. Political division, corporate corruption, propaganda, sexual deviancy, obesity rates, suicide rates, drug abuse, crime rates, income disparities, civil unrest, and racial tensions are all rising, as food quality and mental health decrease. Almost a quarter of American adults now report having mental illness. If activists were really making society a better place, surely we would’ve seen results by now. Instead, rather “mysteriously,” increases in activism correlate with further societal breakdown.

Modern times are responsible for great innovations—we’ve eliminated many common diseases and put men on the moon—but progress shouldn’t come at the cost of our collective spirit.

Fortunately, some people recognize that society isn’t in an ideal position these days. Greater interest in homeschooling and homesteading are among the most obvious indicators of this.

Western civilization’s link with the growing “classical education” movement

Classical education refers to pre-industrial methods of pursuing knowledge while building the foundation of what makes for virtuous citizens. There’s slight disagreement over which approach is “best” yet the overall goal is always the same. Children are steered toward development of self-discipline, intellectual curiosity, wisdom, appreciation for truth and beauty, perseverance, generosity, courage, respect, and a flexibility which allows them to tackle any challenge. Everyone is expected to read and understand the great works which helped form Western civilization—Homer, Plato, Aristotle, Aeschylus, Euclid, Archimedes, Aquinas, Alighieri, Shakespeare, and many others. Different subjects, authors, and time periods are integrated instead of each studied in a vacuum.

“The aim of liberal education is human excellence… For this reason it is the education of free men.” —Robert M. Hutchins

Modern education, by contrast, emphasizes test-taking while teaching to the lowest common denominator. It’s meant to prepare children for a lifetime of cubicle or factory work. Modern schools are often compared to prisons, especially as the alleged quality of that education deteriorates. Read old letters and it’s obvious that the average person 300 years ago was more eloquent and educated than the average person today. And as advertising and propaganda grow more sophisticated and optimized, more people fall for falsehoods.

Failed experiments like Common Core have repeatedly proven inferior to older styles of education—which is how students learned things for most of human history. Classical schools don’t just outperform “normal” schools, they blow them out of the water, even on standardized tests. Homeschooled children likewise do well; the negative stereotypes are unfounded.

Some works are timeless, proving themselves over the centuries to be a valuable part of the human experience. It’s been 6,000 years since the first cities were founded. We’ve inherited the works of the greatest minds in history. Isn’t it logical to prioritize learning from our shared heritage? How to think and why is more important than learning how to make text bold in Microsoft Word. Technology is easy to learn and rapidly evolves. Virtue and responsibility, less so.

“Only a virtuous people are capable of freedom. As nations become more corrupt and vicious, they have more need of masters.” —Benjamin Franklin

The Western canon is a glimpse into the cumulative wisdom of humanity. We shouldn’t neglect the past as we strive toward an ever-brighter future. Without a proper foundation, our society will crumble into chaos and become mere dust.

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This is a reader-supported publication. For further support of my work:

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1. Art and Design

2. History and Culture

3. Personal Aesthetics and Men’s Fashion

4. Writing and Business

If you want to subscribe for free to some of these, instead of all topics, you can adjust your settings here. Go to “Manage Subscription” on Substack, above the ‘log out’ button, and uncheck any categories you prefer not to read about. Fast and easy.

Below is a list of everything I’ve published thus far, organized by category and in a recommended reading order.

As this Substack grows, this will be the best way to keep on top of things. I don’t publish “in order” because I tend to write about whatever’s on my mind at the time. (I like to think that my wide variety of interests helps keep things interesting.) As you may know, I intend to create enough content to replace art schools. This will include an art history book, graphic design coursework, and perhaps a real-life art foundation if things go extremely well here. Sky’s the limit.

This post will be continuously updated as new things are published. Feel free to post comments with suggestions or requests.

Here’s what we currently have, plus some previews of what’s planned for the near future:

Art School Year 1

• Why Everyone Should Learn More About Art

• Better Living Through Environmental Aesthetics

• Art Appreciation 101 (Coming Soon)

• Defining Western Civilization

• Destruction of Beauty and the Fall of Museums

• Visiting Art Museums: Which Ones, Why, and How?

• What Happens If You Can’t Think Visually?

• How To Become More Creative

• Media Production Resources

• Current Design Trends For 2022 and 2023

• How Does Graphic Design Compare To Other Careers?

• How To Become A Graphic Designer

• Color Theory and Psychology

• Art Fundamentals: Layout and Composition

• Typography 101

• Typography 102

• Photography 101: An Introduction

• Drawing and Painting 101: Introduction To Techniques and Styles (Coming Soon)

• Timeline of Western Art, from Prehistoric to Ancient: Art History 101

• Art in Ancient Greece: Art History 101

• The Mediterranean Iron Age: Art History 101

• Introduction to Western Medieval Art: Art History 101

• Introduction to the European Renaissance: Art History 101

• From Baroque to Contemporary, 1600-present: Western Art History 101

• Timeline of Early American Art: Art History 101

• Introduction to East Asian Art: Art History 101

• Introduction to South Asian Art: Art History 101

• Introduction to Pacific Art: Art History 101 (Coming Soon)

• The Seven Wonders of the World: Art History 102

• More TBD

Art School Year 2

• When did “Modern Art” begin? Art History 201

• Is AI Art Actually Art?

• Traditional Aesthetics in NFT Art and the Digital Renaissance

• Debranding: No Visual Fun Allowed

• Branding 101 and Building A Brand

• Introduction To Print and Package Design (TBD)

• Introduction To UI/UX Design and Web Fundamentals (TBD)

• Was there art and culture before humans existed?

• Cultures of Prehistoric Europe: Art History 201

• More TBD

Art School Year 3

• Who were the first named artists and authors of history? Art History 301

• More TBD

Literature, Music, and Other Topics

• Good Hobbies, Bad Hobbies, and Not Being Boring

• Music Appreciation 101 (TBD)

• All About Opera (guest post by BowTiedOctopod)

• Introduction To Poetry: Literature 101

• More TBD

Fashion and Personal Aesthetics

• The Foundations: Men’s Fashion 101

• Dress Codes and Style: Men’s Fashion 102

• How To Choose Your Wardrobe Colors: Men’s Fashion 103

• Introduction to Fit: Men’s Fashion 104

• Introduction to Shoes: Men’s Fashion 201

• Introduction to Watches: Men’s Fashion 202

• Introduction to Accessories: Men’s Fashion 203

• Introduction to Fragrances: Men’s Fashion 204

• Introduction to Hairstyles and Beards: Men’s Fashion 205

History and Culture

• Culture I (guest post by BowTiedBernard)

• Culture II (guest post by BowTiedBernard)

• Based Names vs Cringe Names (Etymology)

• Heraldry and Creating A Coat of Arms For Your Family

• How To Conduct Genealogical Research

• Chivalry, Bushido, and Historical Codes of Conduct

• A Brief History of Christianity: How Did Europe Become Christian?

• Where did horses come from and when did people use them?

• Was there a historical basis for Atlantis?

Copywriting and Business

• Introduction To Copywriting & How To Become A Freelance Writer

• Copywriting Part 2: Getting Clients and Scaling

• Improving Clarity In Writing: Cutting Unnecessary Words

• Create A Business Website In 1 Hour

• How To Create A Print-On-Demand E-commerce Art Store

• A Musician’s Guide to Sales Funnels and Not Starving

• Masterlist of 100+ AI-Powered Tools

Let’s make this the #1 Substack for art and aesthetics. A resource for everyone, from homeschool parents to entrepreneurs and aspiring college students.

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This is a reader-supported publication. For further support of my work:

• I sell physical artwork and journals at ApolloGallery.org with more to come

• I have a masterlist of 100+ AI-related tools for increasing efficiency

• You can hire me for graphic design work

• And if you don’t already know, I’m on both Twitter and Instagram

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Let’s begin with the oldest:

China

The world’s oldest pottery (from what we’ve discovered so far in Xianren Cave) dates back to around 18,000 BC. Agriculture (the Neolithic Revolution) began around 7000-6000 BC, primarily centered around the Yangtze and Yellow rivers. Even though agriculture had been in Mesopotamia for thousands of years, it’s believed that Chinese civilization arose independently of them, and they figured out farming on their own.

Early cultures included those of the Peiligang (7000-5000 BC), Yangshao (5000-3000 BC), Liangzhu (3300-2300 BC), Majiayao (3300-2000 BC), and Longshan (3000-1900 BC).

China’s alleged first dynasty, the Xia dynasty (approx 2205-1600 BC), is credited with beginning the Chinese Bronze Age. This has overlap with the Erlitou period (1900-1500 BC) and inventing the wheel. Ancient bronze work is particularly notable for its high level of detail.

The Shang dynasty (1600-1045 BC) is the first dynasty with supporting archeological evidence for its existence. Based in the Yellow River valley, this was one of the first major civilizations of Asia. They worked with clay, bronze, jade, bone, and other materials for both artistic works and weapons of war. The earliest Chinese writing dates back to 1250 BC, shortly before the appearance of chariots (possibly from Indo-European cultures).

The Shang were followed by the Zhou dynasty (1046-256 BC), one of the longest-lasting. This time was notable for the “Mandate of Heaven,” a feudal system, increased bureaucracy and writing, Confucius, and Taoism. Crossbows were in use by 600-341 BC, such as in the Battle of Maling.

Men aimed for excellence in the “Four Arts” (qin, chess, calligraphy, painting) or “Six Arts” (math, calligraphy, literature, horsemanship, archery, music, and religious rites).

The legendary Warring States period (approximately 475-221 BC) led to the first unified Chinese empire. The Qin dynasty only lasted 15 years before giving way to The Eighteen Kingdoms and soon a Han dynasty, but you can do a lot in a short time. The Qin armies of terracotta warriors are among the world’s most famous works, created around 246-201 BC.

Buddhism reached China during the transition from BC to AD, radically altering world art and culture. Buddha statues have been found as far away as Greece.

Woodblock printing became common soon after, around 200 AD, and this is also when we see a clear “Chinese style” in painting. Most people can easily point out Chinese and Japanese art because of the distinctive colors, shapes, techniques, and methods of portraying people. It remained more or less consistent for thousands of years.

The Three Kingdoms era (220-280 AD) was one of China’s bloodiest, and impactful enough to influence culture up to the present day, including the long-running video game series Dynasty Warriors. The Romance of the Three Kingdoms by Luo Guanzhong (14th century) is an epic semi-historical story based on this period, still relevant, and one of China’s most famous literary classics. (For an English translation, most people seem to recommend the Moss Roberts translation.)

Also see: the 1592 book Journey To The West, more mythology-based and the origin for popular characters like the Monkey King.

The Three Kingdoms era was followed by turbulent times, including the Sixteen Kingdoms of Northern China. Art continued to evolve under successive dynasties: the Sui and Tang dynasties (581-960). Calligraphy-like landscape painting became popular.

The Song and Yuan dynasties (960-1368) largely covered the Medieval era. Like Medieval Europe, the Black Plague swept through and killed millions of people.

At this point, European and Chinese cross-cultural contact was significant, via the Silk Road. Marco Polo for example is well-known for his 1271-1295 travels and things only increased from there.

The famous Great Wall of China was built in small sections over centuries of activity. The wall as we know it today was largely constructed under the Ming dynasty (1368-1644). Urbanization and specialized industry increased under The Hongwu Emperor, and Neo-Confucianism became popular.

Fun fact: the Ming had one of the largest navies in the world at the time. The Chinese could’ve launched their own Age of Discovery and theoretically colonized the Americas before Europe. And yet—they burned over 3,000 vessels, deeming sea voyages “wasteful.”

The Qing dynasty was China’s final imperial dynasty, lasting from 1644 to 1912. Major events included the First Opium War (1840, Treaty of Nanking (1842), Taiping Rebellion (1851-1864), and other conflicts. The dynasty eventually fell and the Republic of China was established in January 1912.

Like in the West, there came a push toward modernization. Chinese artists didn’t exactly head toward Impressionism and Post-Impressionism like Europe, yet their art did change, inspired by both past and present.

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Japan

Japan was once linked to the Chinese mainland by a narrow strip of land. There’s some evidence that humans discovered this route by at least 30,000 BC, although they didn’t leave much behind. Mostly a few stone tools.

Between 14,500 and 10,700 BC, we see initial developments of pottery. When sea levels rose 10,000 years ago (also see: Younger Dryas) the Japanese archipelago was largely cut off from the rest of Asia. This naturally led to a clear split in cultural development compared to other regions.

The first major culture was that of the Jōmon hunter-gatherers. As they spread out, regional differences appeared, although they’re still considered a unified culture until 500-300 BC. Archery was in use by this Jōmon period, with unique longbows becoming the standard later (between 300 BC and 300 AD). After 500-300 BC, there was the Yayoi period. The early Japanese people began to use agriculture (from Korea) and developed a complex society.

Even at this early time, art was intricate.

The Kofun period (300-710 AD) was the final phase of Japanese prehistory, characterized by major changes like the introduction of Buddhism and Chinese writing. They later adapted Chinese script to form what would eventually become “Classical Japanese” (Medieval Japanese), a literary form which still exists today (albeit much diminished in use, especially after World War II). The Kofun period includes Asuka and Nara art. 

The megalithic Mozu Tombs (and Tomb of Emperor Nintoku) are one of their biggest achievements, somewhat like the North American mound-building cultures. The keyhole shape is rare and unique; I don’t know of any other culture who did this.

Japanese civilization rapidly evolved. Many of their distinctive styles have their origins in the time soon after Buddhism was introduced to the island chain. Woodblock printing was also introduced in the 700s.

In 794 AD, the budding country’s capital was moved to Heian-kyō (Kyoto) and the resulting “Heian period,” which was largely stable and peaceful, spanned 794-1185 AD.

Peace never lasts forever, though. War broke out at the end of the Heian period. The victors, the Minamoto clan, moved the seat of power to Kamakura, where it remained until 1333. This also shifted power to the warrior classes and away from the traditional nobles, which in turn influenced what artists created.

And warriors could be artists too:

The Gallery of Apollo

Chivalry, Bushido, and Historical Codes of Conduct

Since the dawn of writing, cultures set up codes of conduct and standards for living in society. Many of the concepts are universal. The Code of Hammurabi is the most well-known ancient legal text. Dating back to around 1750 BC, it’s one of the oldest…

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4 years ago · 8 likes · BowTiedApollo

The Kamakura era ended when the Ashikaga clan took over and returned the capital to Kyoto. Since the Ashikaga headquarters ended up in the Muromachi district of the city, this era (1338-1573) is known as the Muromachi era of art, followed by the Azuchi-Momoyama period (1573-1603). Zen was one of the popular themes; but the Japanese also went big, for example Himeji Castle, the largest castle in the country (below).

The Sengoku period, or “Warring States” period, began in 1467 with the Ōnin War. Social unrest, including civil war, lasted for over a century. The end of the Sengoku is debated but can be dated to 1603, for ease of reading, when Tokugawa Ieyasu established his Shogunate and the resulting Edo period (1603-1867).

Ukiyo-e art and Kabuki theater emerged in this time.

Side note: my personal interest in this era began as a kid after randomly discovering the PS2 RTT Kessen many years ago.

Japan was exposed to Europeans after they began the Age of Discovery in the 1500s, initially from shipwrecked Spanish sailors. Jesuits began attempting to convert Japan in 1549 and “Bernardo the Japanese” is thought to have been the first Japanese person to set foot on European soil in 1553. One early ambassador was daimyō Hasekura Tsunenaga, who visited both Spain and the Americas between 1613 and 1620.

Western powers tried to move in on Japan without as much success as they wanted. In 1854, Commodore Matthew Perry’s visit led to the controversial Treaty of Kanagawa. This opened the country to more Western influence, rapid cultural changes, a new system of government, and significant conflict. This included the Boshin War (1868-1869) and Satsuma Rebellion (1877).

Japan’s final phase of independent culture ended with the upheaval of this Meiji era (1868-1912) where Western culture clashed with–and was integrated with–traditional Japanese ideas. This has been a popular topic in contemporary media such as Rurouni Kenshin and The Last Samurai.

Korea

Early Korean history is a bit less eventful than China and Japan, yet remains notable in its own ways.

Korean pottery began to be made around 7,000 BC, in relatively simple and primitive styles compared to the earliest Chinese and Japanese cultures. Their bronze age began around 2,000 BC, about a thousand years after it began in the Mediterranean, marked by megalithic dolmens.

The Korean peninsula had its own “Three Kingdoms” period, which began in 57 BC as the Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla kingdoms competed for control.

Buddhism was introduced around 372 AD. Like in China and Japan, it had a large influence on art and culture. Images of Buddha are frequent. The southernmost kingdom at the time, the Silla Kingdom, was the last to adopt Buddhism.

The Joseon dynasty (1392-1910) was Korea’s long-lasting “classical” era and encompassed the entire peninsula. Science, literature, art, culture, and technology flourished. Confucianism began to influence the arts alongside Buddhism. It was eventually the official state ideology and Buddhism was discouraged.

The Korean alphabet (Hangul) was invented in 1443, an easier-to-learn writing system aimed at improving literacy rates.

Korea became increasingly isolated after invasions from both Japan and China, becoming the first country referred to as a “hermit kingdom.”

The Joseon dynasty eventually crumbled. Its last king (and later Emperor) was forced to sign unfavorable treaties, namely the 1876 Treaty of Ganghwa and 1905 Japan-Korea treaty. Korea was plagued with pressure from foreign nations, famine, warfare, internal revolts, a failed coup d'état, assassinations, and more. It was too much for a kingdom to bear, and they were annexed by Japan in 1910.

Korea was ruled by the Japanese Empire until the end of World War II in 1945. After Japan’s surrender, Korea was divided into two occupation zones, one American and one Soviet. The Korean War of 1950 devastated the peninsula, with almost all major cities—and millions of people—destroyed. Thus today we have both North Korea and South Korea, which now have very significant cultural differences.

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• I sell physical artwork and journals at ApolloGallery.org with more to come

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The article, however, was total nonsense. Not just because it was riddled with basic errors (such as claiming the Cerutti Mastodon site had “designs carved by human hands” despite no carvings at the site). The author behind the claim is a postmodernist grifter whose bloated PhD dissertation includes “deconstructing a Eurocentric myth” in the title. She’s an activist masquerading as an academic, and should be mocked instead of accepted.

Other people with more patience for absurdity have debunked her shoddy work. She started with a conclusion instead of a hypothesis, grasping at straws for anything that would corroborate her “Europeans are racist and Natives are magically wonderful” claim. She even links to studies that contradict her claims. Looks like literally anyone can get a PhD these days. The author continues to speak on this topic despite having proven she’s unqualified to do so. Media outlets are happy to promote her, since she *seems* authoritative and agrees with anti-Western bias. Thus the “horse topic” rears its head every couple of years.

This saga did get me thinking: Where did horses originally come from? How did they spread out across the world and become adopted? They were more or less essential for early humans to not just survive, but thrive.

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Baroque is known as the first “global” art movement. It spread further than any previous movement, partly from European colonization and trading networks. It dominated the world with highly-decorated dramatic works of art, architecture, and sculpture. It’s often easy to classify Baroque works because of their correlation with “fear of empty space” and epic appearance.

• Important artists include: Peter Paul Reubens, Rembrandt van Rijn, Caravaggio, Artemesia Gentileschi, Diego Velázquez.

• Gian Lorenzo Bernini is credited as the “founder” of Baroque sculpture.

The Cultural Tutor argued that Baroque art was invented in the Reformation in direct opposition to Protestant minimalism and iconoclasm; the Catholic Church “started paying more attention to art as a religious and political force” and placed increasing emphasis on the persuasive nature of beauty. “The rise of Protestantism had made the Catholic Church more deeply aware of its own identity - and so they doubled down on it.” 

“Baroque architecture was rooted in the neoclassical style of the Renaissance - it used rounded arches, classical orders, pediments, and all the other trappings of Roman and Greek architecture. Only with a new dynamism, decadence, scale, and lavishness never before seen.”

Baroque composers included Johan Sebastian Bach, Georg Frideric Handel, Johann Pachelbel, and Antonio Vivaldi.

Rococo (Pompadour) is a type of late Baroque style which originated in Paris. It’s less bombastic and dynamic, instead emphasizing delicacy and light-hearted themes. Rococo artists rebelled against Baroque norms and introduced more softness, along with more pastel-like colors. Whereas Baroque art was content with themes like archangels and dragons, Rococo preferred picnics and love. However, they kept the idea of intricacy; Rococo art is very decorative and almost over-worked in its level of detail.

In the mid-1700s, Neoclassicism developed. The Age of Enlightenment and early archeology led to the movement. Excavations of Pompeii and Herculaneum brought a massive wave of interest to ancient art and literature. Neoclassical works are easy to spot. They’re all based on ancient Greco-Roman art and mythology.

Visually, it has similarities to prior movements, especially in the Renaissance, but is more restrained and minimalistic. Especially compared to the intricate Baroque and Rococo styles. Neoclassical work emphasizes simplicity and symmetry, focusing on what Europeans believed ancient Mediterranean civilization looked like (judging by their ruins).

“Classical” music dates to about 1750-1820; a transitional period between the Baroque and Romantic movements. Compositions became more complex and the harpsichord became less common as piano rose in popularity. Composers included Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven, and Franz Schubert.

Romanticism (approx 1780-1850) was more counter-cultural than prior movements. Some historians argue that this was the beginning of “modern art.” It was anti-Enlightenment, against the Industrial Revolution, soon after the American Revolution, and in favor of the French Revolution. They disliked the intricacy of Baroque and Rococo, along with the realism and symmetry of Neoclassicism.

Romantic- era artists emphasized emotion, atmospheric landscapes, and the power of nature. (Little to no work related to “romance” or love.) Some late works could potentially be classified as Early Impressionism due to their abstraction, JMW Turner as one example.

• Important artists include: Ivan Aivazovsky, Caspar Friedrich, Gericault, Eugène Delacroix, William Blake, Henry Fuseli, Goya

• A subcategory: the Hudson River School

Romantic composers included Frédéric Chopin, Felix Mendelssohn, Gioachino Rossini, and Carl Maria von Weber.

Personally, Neoclassicism and Romanticism are my favorite periods.

Beaux-Arts was a French combination of Neoclassicism, Baroque, and Renaissance styles. Primarily applied to architecture, it was an academic style taught in art schools. Students underwent considerable training and they influenced architecture around the world. The goal here was to combine the best parts of each style with modern techniques and materials.

Victorian art dealt with a variety of themes, notably including Shakespeare and fairy tales. Stylistically, their paintings varied, so “Victorian” is more about what the art showed rather than how. Many artists of the time used Renaissance and Neoclassical techniques to show heroic or mythological scenes.

Realists (including the Ashcan and Barbizon schools) diverged from their contemporaries in Neoclassical, Romantic, and Victorian art. They focused on painting mundane subjects. Daily life in city neighborhoods, farmers, etc. They shunned epic mythological tales in favor of simple truths about life. They were willing to push boundaries of accepted art and discuss social issues. “Mundane” art had existed before, but intermittently, and the Realists pushed it into a cohesive movement of its own.

Around this time, the Impressionist movement popped up. Color and light took the stage over lines and detail. Sometimes considered an extreme form of Romanticism, these paintings had a sketch-like quality with their loose brushstrokes.

Post-Impressionism was a natural extension which included further abstraction and distortions. It diverged from reality with overly expressive effects and strange colors. Pointillism (using dots instead of brushstrokes) was one technique.

Most artists and critics hated impressionism and post-impressionism. At the time most of these works were deemed messy, low-skilled, and degenerate. Remember that this was being done at the same time as Victorian art. There’s a huge visual difference between Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema and Van Gogh.

• Important artists include:  Vincent van Gogh, Paul Cézanne, Paul Gauguin, Georges Seurat

Symbolism was another reaction against realistic and naturalistic art. In paintings, poems, and literature, artists wanted to use metaphor and allusion instead of showing things literally. They were influenced by dreams, mysticism, and the works of people like Edgar Allan Poe. Visually, there was a lot of stylistic variation like in Victorian art. This was a precursor for Surrealism.

Art Nouveau (approximately 1890-1915) was a nature-inspired movement which primarily dealt with architecture and decorative arts (interior decorating). Posters were also popular. It emphasized curves and plant-like visuals, and is most similar to Rococo, although it often included neoclassical and medieval elements. Tiffany stained glass has many examples.

• Important artists include:  Alphonse Mucha, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Gustav Klimt, Aubrey Beardsley

Lastly, we have to mention photography. Part of the reason for art becoming more abstract is that photos muscled into the “realistic art” niche. Painting a beautiful landscape had less perceived value when taking a picture was faster and less expensive. Artists thus began expressing themselves in different ways.

The Gallery of Apollo

Photography 101: An Introduction

Photography is, to me, about capturing the beauty of a moment in time. It isn’t just about “taking a picture.” It’s preserving the aesthetics and memories of a place, person, or event. You’ll use different techniques and angles to try and present something in its best possible light. There’s a message or feeling behind every snapshot…

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4 years ago · 4 likes · BowTiedApollo

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Modern Art & Contemporary Art

Opinions differ on when “modern art” begins. I personally put it around 1900, alongside the short-lived burst of Fauvism and decline of Impressionism. Artists by this point turned from depictions of externalities (the divine, nature, etc.) in favor of emotions, abstractions, and internal thoughts. “Anything” can become “art.”

Early modern art includes movements such as Expressionism, Cubism, Futurism, Suprematism, Constructivism, De Stijl, Precisionism, and Harlem Renaissance.

After The Great War (WW1) things took a slightly darker turn in art and sculpture. The ramifications of the war was one influence for artists further questioning the point of art. We get Dada, Surrealism, and Modernist Architecture.

One of the highlights of post-war art is Art Deco (1920 – 1935).

Bauhaus and other abstract movements are the foundation of contemporary nonsense like Corporate Memphis. Emphasis on “function” and simplified forms, along with mass production, ushered in the new age of Globalism—where cultural identity is tossed aside in favor of a homogeneous “international” style. Beauty and form are stripped away, leaving us with an “Ikeafication” and “Debranding” of everything.

WW2 exacerbated this with 50s/60s styles like Pop Art, Brutalism, and Minimalism. Andy Warhol and Roy Liechtenstein are among the biggest personalities of the time.

The “break point” for the next art era came from hippies, feminists, and other outcasts. The 1960s included movements like psychedelic art, graffiti, “junk” art, and performance art.

“Contemporary art” is a broad, easy-to-classify term. It’s anything made after 1970. This includes Postmodernism, Deconstructivism, Installation Art, and meme culture. Anything goes. Some people argue that art is solely an intellectual exercise now, not an aesthetic display, with ideas taking center stage.

One newer term is “Artivism”—described as “political action presented through (or as) art.” It’s a reactionary movement, generally railing against traditional values and espousing social justice activism. It’s more about politics, trying to bully people into believing what you want them to believe, rather than art.

The art world continues to evolve in unexpected ways, including nostalgia-based movements like Vaporwave and counter-countermovements like Neo-Traditionalism. Classical sculpture has survived in artists like Frederick Elliott Hart and Roger Morigi. 

As for where we’ll go next, no one knows.

The big thing these days is NFT art and Artificial Intelligence art.

Side note: because this article is a brief introduction, we haven’t covered literally everything here. Stay tuned for more. This is the 101 level to contextualize things and introduce a generalized exposure to each style/topic.

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Here’s the full art history series at this time:

• Timeline of Western Art, from Prehistoric to Ancient: Art History 101

• Art in Ancient Greece: Art History 101

• The Mediterranean Iron Age: Art History 101

• Introduction to Western Medieval Art: Art History 101

• Introduction to the European Renaissance: Art History 101

• Timeline of Early American Art: Art History 101

• The Seven Wonders of the World: Art History 102

This is a reader-supported publication. For further support of my work:

• I sell physical artwork and journals at ApolloGallery.org with more to come

• I have a masterlist of 100+ AI-related tools for increasing efficiency

• You can hire me for graphic design work

• And if you don’t already know, I’m on both Twitter and Instagram

Feudalism weakened and would collapse entirely in the coming centuries. More than half of the European population died in the 1300s. Such an extreme death toll weakened ties between classes and created power vacuums. Social, spiritual, and political instability led to shortages of laborers, soldiers, and more. Which in turn led to lords offering the lower classes better working conditions, more pay, and even freedom. The evolution of firearms also made knights obsolete when even the sickliest peasant could be a significant force on the battlefield.

The Renaissance began as an extension of Medieval Europe, with greater wealth and shifts of power leading to a notably complex and rich period of Western history.

Although Rome gets a lot of attention, it took a long time for the city to recover after the fall of the Roman Empire. The “birthplace” of the Italian Renaissance was Florence, which became a wealthy center of trade and banking in the Medieval era. Rome’s recovery didn’t begin until the time of Pope Martin V (1417-1431).

Some people seem to believe the Renaissance was purely about Italian art and architecture. True, many of the greatest works were by Italian artists, yet other areas of the world had their own cultural evolutions. The Netherlands and Germany as two examples. Some cultures preferred non-visual arts like literature and music, as in the later English Renaissance (associated with Queen Elizabeth I, 1558-1603).

The Renaissance was a continent-wide phenomenon when artists turned from craftsmen into public figures. In prior eras, artists rarely got credit for what they did, and there was little room for personal expression. Art served a specific purpose, usually devoted to higher powers or as a specific commission. Although this continued during the Renaissance, the trend began to weaken. Some patrons gave a new level of agency to the artists they commissioned. Artists like Michaelangelo were household names, celebrities in their own right, and people clamored to work with them.

Early and High Renaissance (1300–1550)

Artistically, the Renaissance began by blending Gothic and Classic styles and taking things in a new direction. Many artists were inspired by ancient Greek and Roman works as a renewed interest in the Mediterranean’s legacy gushed forth.

Artists revisited concepts like depth, perspective, chiaroscuro, and foreshortening, which lasted only briefly in ancient art. Most art throughout history didn’t bother with trying to portray an accurate illusion of three-dimensional space. (Egyptian works for instance.)

The most famous artists are the ones who later inspired the Ninja Turtles’ names:

• Donatello aka Donato di Niccolò di Betto Bardi (1386-1466)

• Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci (1452-1519)

• Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni (1475-1564)

• Raphael aka Raffaello Sanzio (1483-1520)

Other notable works include:

Venetian and Northern Renaissance (1430–1550)

Giovanni Bellini, known for works like the San Zaccaria Altarpiece, was called “the greatest Venetian painter of his time.”

Europeans developed woodcut art in 1300-1400. This began as simple textile patterns and religious images. The Forlì “Madonna of the Fire” is an early example, printed sometime before 1428. Engraving also took off as an option for creating prints. Well-known artists include Martin Schongauer (1450-1491), Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528), and Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-1669) who elevated this into true art.

Etching is thought to have begun with Daniel Hopfer (1470-1536) around 1500, shortly before Dürer. Printmaking quickly became elaborate and popular. Not just as a way to quickly produce copies of great works, but also create original works. This also made art affordable even for common people. The less affordable type of copy was textiles; some famous works were turned into tapestries.

Hieronymus Bosch (Jerome van Aken) is best known for his bizarre and surreal Garden of Earthly Delights (1490-1510). Entire books can be written about this piece alone for its level of detail and symbolism.

Jan van Eyck (1380-1441) was well-known for his use of oil paintings, to the extent that some people at the time claimed he invented oil paints. He didn’t (it was understood by at least 1110-1125) but most pre-Renaissance paintings used a less flexible egg tempera paint. Oil paints were a significant invention that allowed artists to reach new heights. Most people now know van Eyck for his intricate symbolism-laden Arnolfini Portrait—although it appears to be a simple portrait of a couple, it has a lot of interesting details.

Early landscape painters included Joachim Patinir (1515-1524) and Pieter Brugel the Elder (especially works like his 1565 Hunters in the Snow and the Harvesters). Backgrounds were somewhat of an afterthought compared to the main subject of a painting, so it was unusual to see them as the focus.

Mannerism and Late Renaissance (1527–1580)

Important names included: Tintoretto, El Greco, Pontormo, Bronzino, Sofonisba Anguissola, Lavinia Fontana.

Niccolò Machiavelli published The Prince in 1532.

Construction on St. Peter’s Basilica began in 1506 and took over a century to complete. When fully unveiled, it was the largest church in the world–and still is, by interior measurements.

The Renaissance wasn’t just about high arts, either. It made its way into plates, tables, ceramics (maiolica), and other normally-mundane items.

Giorgio Vasari, one of Italy’s most famous artists, is credited as one of the founders of art history and the first to refer to the Renaissance as a “rebirth.” His tremendous multi-volume work Le Vite de' più eccellenti pittori, scultori, e architettori (Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects) was first published in 1550. It had dozens of biographies and hundreds of pages of information about the Italian Renaissance. Many later biographies and encyclopedias used this as a reference.

Closing thoughts

This “brief introduction” is getting too long, so we’ll end for now, and return with further discussion another time.

A lot happened during the Renaissance: political intrigue, papal drama, assassinations, war, and the rise of families like the famous Medici lineage and the Borgias. Advances in the sciences included those by Nicolaus Copernicus, Galileo Galilei, Francis Bacon, Tycho Brahe, and Johannes Kepler. Christopher Columbus’ first voyage to America in 1492 created yet another shake-up.

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This is a reader-supported publication. For further support of my work:

• I sell physical artwork and journals at ApolloGallery.org with more to come

• I have a masterlist of 100+ AI-related tools for increasing efficiency

• You can hire me for graphic design work

• And if you don’t already know, I’m on both Twitter and Instagram

The Gallery of Apollo

The Mediterranean Iron Age: Art History 101

Last time we checked out the evolution of ancient Greek art as we know it today. The Mediterranean’s post-Alexander major power was that of the Romans. The Roman Kingdom and Etruscan Art The Etruscans (also known as Villanovans in their early stages) were Italy’s first Iron Age civilization, developing ironworking by 900 BC…

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3 years ago · 5 likes · BowTiedApollo

Medieval art covers the thousand-year period between the Roman Empire’s collapse and the Renaissance. This is also why we call it “the Middle Ages;” because Renaissance-era Europe believed their era—and the Greco-Roman era—was the height of human accomplishment. They largely disregarded the “barbaric” era in the middle of these. This stereotype persists even to the present day, even though the human race has always done great things.

We can divide the Middle Ages into three categories:

• Early Middle Ages (400-1000)

  • Merovingian, Carolingian, and Ottonian art

• High Middle Ages (1000-1300)

  • Romanesque and Gothic art

• Late Middle Ages (1300-1500)

  • International Gothic

And throughout all of these periods, more or less, Byzantine and Islamic art flourished.

Medieval art was generally religious. This included illuminated manuscripts, stained glass windows, reliquaries, and altarpieces. They used more rare materials like gold and gemstones. While the ancient Greeks and Romans made strides in secular works, the Middle Ages is characterized more by the expansion of Christianity and Islam. Christianity had gained significant ground just before the Roman Empire’s collapse, even becoming the state religion. Islam was founded around 600 AD and soon became its main competitor.

Architecture and other art forms became increasingly complex and elegant over the centuries. This was a time of great upheaval. Increased trade and awareness of other cultures, empires rising and falling, and more. The Catholic Church was one of the few stable institutions and this influence is easily seen in Medieval art. Churches and monasteries also served as centers of power and wealth. Some people used them as banks and stored family heirlooms there. Secular or pagan art was less likely to be created and less likely to survive the ages.

Early Middle Ages (400-1000)

After the fall of Rome, one of the first major powers to emerge was the Merovingian dynasty, covering most of West/Central Europe. The name comes from King Merovech, said to be the ruler of a barbarian tribe who allied with the late Roman Empire.

The Carolingian Empire (800-888) came next, named after Charlemagne, the founder of the cultural institution known as the Holy Roman Empire (800-1806). Charlemagne felt an affinity with the Roman Empire—and as he acquired wealth and power, he wanted to match their artistic output.

Fun fact: every living person of European descent is allegedly related to Emperor Charlemagne. His family was… prolific. Direct descendants include Sir Christopher Lee, who went on to record metal albums about Charlemagne.

Feudalism developed in the late 800s/early 900s as invasions and raids intensified. Centralized powers weakened and looked to decentralize in response. Vassals would receive land, and in return, owed their lord military service and/or taxes to fund his war chest. The entire system was based on reciprocity. Symbiotic relations between lower and upper classes. Power began to be delegated throughout kingdoms since a single central authority could no longer muster an adequate defense. Especially when attacked on all sides—where do you put your slow-moving troops?

The Vikings flourished during this time, with “the Viking Age” between approximately 800 and 1100 AD.

Part of Viking success was speed. Longships could navigate rivers and coasts 5-10 times faster than a land-based army. They'd appear out of nowhere, overwhelm local defenses, and vanish long before reinforcements could arrive. Paris was famously besieged at least four times in the 800s.

Vikings were large and skilled (higher-protein diet and training since childhood) and had less gear than opponents (only 30-40 lbs of weapons and armor) for greater strength and agility. Plus they often went for easy targets like monasteries.

(Side note: I’ll cover Viking art and culture separately since they deserve their own article. TBD.)

Such assaults were deeply traumatic for Europe. They didn’t influence art much, yet they did influence architecture and culture.

After the fall of the Carolingians, the earliest castles began to be built. Regional instability and foreign invasion necessitated fortresses which could be used for both offense and defense. These were originally primitive designs of wood and earth located in naturally defensible positions. It wasn’t until later that stone and other more durable materials were used for our modern castle stereotype.

An earthwork fortress needed dozens of people, but stone castles needed thousands. Many of these old fortresses were rebuilt multiple times, and continually expanded, to reach their present state. Prague Castle is one of the first (880) and is the largest castle in the world. Other early castles include William the Conqueror’s Warwick Castle (1068) and Windsor Castle (1070). Early architects included James of Saint George.

Ottonian art is named after Emperor Otto the Great (962-972) who became successor to the Holy Roman Empire after a period of turmoil. Under Otto, there was significant interest in art from the Carolingians, Byzantines, and Italians. Major Ottonian works included the Gero Crucifix (965-970) and The Codex Egberti (977-993).

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High Middle Ages (1000-1300)

“Romanesque” art stems from, as one might expect, the Roman Empire’s influence (including Byzantine art), while incorporating local Frankish and Germanic styles. It began gaining popularity around 1000 AD and is found in many regions of Europe. Sculpture made a strong comeback, including relief carvings. Architecture was thicc and stylized.

The Crusades opened a window back to the Near East, starting with the First Crusade of 1096-1099. European artists and craftsmen acquired influences from Byzantine and Islamic art.

The Anglo-Saxon Bayeux Tapestry is one of the most famous works from the 11th century. The distinctive embroidered cloth measures an astounding 230 feet long (70 meters) and tells an epic story. Here’s one small section:

Gothic architecture and sculpture emerged around 1144-1155 AD in France. It had no connection to the barbarian group known as the Goths, and wasn’t called “gothic” at the time—that came hundreds of years later. It emphasized thinner and more elegant forms in architecture, almost weightless in comparison to older styles.

Originally known as Opus Francigenum (“French work”), new architectural techniques like the flying buttress allowed buildings to reach great heights, pointing towards Heaven itself. Walls became less important as a structural feature, since stress was spread over more concentrated areas. Artists experimented with getting more light inside (especially important in Northern Europe, not so much the Mediterranean) and stained glass was one solution.

The windows of Augsburg Cathedral in Germany (1065) are among the earliest stained glass pieces. Chartres Cathedral (1194-1250) is among the most magnificent and originally had 176 stained glass windows. The stories told by stained glass windows were especially important as visual aids in a time when most people were illiterate.

Early works included the choir at the Abbey of Saint-Denis, and the Royal Portal at Chartres Cathedral. Other well-known examples include the Psalter of St. Louis (1260-1270) and Melchior Broederlam’s altarpiece for Philip the Bold (1394-1399).

The oldest European universities were founded around this time. This included the University of Bologna (1088-1190), University of Oxford (1167-1214), and University of Salamanca (1218-1219). Curriculum focused on both arts and sciences, and was a big step toward the furthering of Western Civilization as a whole.

Nicola Pisano was one artist who looked back to ancient Greece and Rome, and sought to incorporate those traditions in contemporary Christian-themed work, especially after ~1245 when he moved to Pisa. His son continued his work, as did other sculptors.

Widespread catastrophe began to set in at this point.

The Mongols reached Europe in 1240-1241, over a decade after the death of Genghis Khan (Temüjin) in 1227. Their invasion lasted for a year until Mongolian forces retreated. Several possible factors went into the decision to withdraw, including the death of Ögedei Khan. After a few sparse raids, they returned in force, attacking Lithuania and Poland in 1259. Attacks continued until about 1300. European powers launched counter-invasions as the Mongol Empire weakened. By 1368 they no longer had a significant presence in Europe, and by some accounts, that year marked the end of their empire.

Late Middle Ages (1300-1500)

Even more disasters struck Europe after the Mongols. Famine, plague, changes in climate, and social unrest.

These problems included:

• The Little Ice Age (~1300)

• The Great Famine of 1315-1317

• The Byzantine Civil War (1341-1347)

• The Black Death (1346-1353) plus many recurrences between 1360 and 1667

• The Hundred Years' War (1337-1453)

• The Great Schism (1378-1417)

• The Fall of the Byzantine Empire (1453)

• The War of the Roses (1455-1487)

Within a couple of generations, the European population was sliced in half. (Estimates vary widely.) As one would expect, this caused radical cultural shifts.

Military power and technology shifted too. Knights fell out of favor as longbows became common and the cannon was introduced in the 1300s. The first firearm with a trigger was invented in 1475. Between the 1500s and 1600s, armies introduced guns en masse. Cavalry replaced their lances with these new tools, and the first bayonet was invented in the Ottoman Empire.

The Silk Road kept connections alive between Europe and the Far East, as did stories about the travels of Marco Polo (1271-1295). This included the time when the Mongols controlled it. The Road was closed when the Byzantine Empire fell in 1453. This had a major influence on the Age of Discovery, as European merchants searched for ways to reconnect. They turned from land to sea.

Increased European wealth and artistic skill is most evident in the grandest castles and churches of Medieval architecture.

The Lincoln Cathedral, completed in 1311, was the tallest building in the world until 1884. The Florence Cathedral, completed in 1436, has the largest brick dome in the world. Winchester Cathedral, when completed in 1532, was the longest cathedral in the world until St. Peter’s Basilica was built in Italy.

International Gothic (1375-1425) was one of the last art styles before the Renaissance came about in full force. It spread mostly among royals in Western Europe and is known for vibrant colors, flowing lines, slender bodies, and floral themes. Early works included Annunciation (1333) by Simone Martini and the Wilton Diptych (1395-1397) by an anonymous artist. A later example is the The Adoration of the Magi altarpiece in the Strozzi chapel.

Let’s not forget the Holy Roman Empire either:

And, lastly, one of the world’s most important inventions: Johannes Gutenberg’s printing press went into operation in the mid-1400s. In less than a century, printing presses churned out over 20 million books, sparking a revolution in literacy and education. Fully mechanical clocks were another important invention.

For more about “the rise of the West,” here’s another Substack with good information:

Patterns in Humanity

The Rise of the West

I track the historical rise of West Europe by quantitatively analyzing the birth of notable people of science, and then I put it in context with other indicators of historical development. The data together show that West Europe had developmentally surpassed the rest of the world prior to 1500 A.D., before the establishment of overseas colonies or slave…

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3 years ago · 16 likes · 5 comments · Inquisitive Bird

Byzantine Art

The Byzantine Empire’s art is notably different from the rest of Europe due to its Hellenic and Near East influences. Mosaics are especially well-known, as is their use of gold and silver in many pieces. Byzantine artwork began to have greater effect on European art after Constantinople was retaken in 1204, and cultural exchange could take place uninterrupted.

Side note: there’s an argument that the Byzantine Empire began in 330 AD when Constantinople became the Roman Empire’s new capital. Others put 395-476 AD as the start date since that’s when the unified Roman Empire came to an end.

The Early Byzantine era included the Justinian Dynasty (518-602) and a Dark Age that lasted for about 200 years. Also see: the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628.

Although their power was much diminished after Justinian, there was a comeback. The “Middle” Byzantine era ran from about 717 to 1204. This included the Macedonian Renaissance (867-1056) followed by a series of civil wars.

The Crown of Saint Stephen (1070) is of Byzantine design and made for the first king of Hungary.

After the end of the Komnenian Dynasty (1081-1185) we come to the decline and fall of the Byzantine Empire (1204-1453).

The Ottoman Empire took Constantinople in 1453 and it hasn’t been part of Europe since.

Medieval Near East and Africa

The Near East was quickly dominated by Islamic modes of thought as Muslim armies created an empire.

Early Islamic art didn’t have specific rules and generally stuck with local traditions. Although not strictly forbidden by the Qur’an, artists were discouraged from creating figurative art. To “breathe life” is allegedly meant to be a power God alone should hold, and may distract from spiritual focus. This is also where imagery of God and Muhammad became banned, as we know today.

Because of these restrictions, Islamic art brought a focus on non-figurative art: calligraphy, geometry, plant-inspired designs, and repeating patterns. Geometry was based on mathematics from ancient cultures like that of Babylon and Greece. Greek artists, as we’ve seen, believed there were aesthetic principles in math.

The “golden age” of Islamic art began to end in the 15th century, although artistic concepts were passed between the Islamic world and European world. And less desirable things too. Like Medieval Europe, the Black Death terrorized the Islamic world, although for much longer. Plague wasn’t considered gone until as late as 1850.

Notable areas within Medieval Sub-Saharan Africa include Great Zimbabwe and the Kingdom of Mapungubwe, both of which collapsed by 1500. Their mortarless stone constructions are still visible today, as ruins, across modern-day Mozambique and Zimbabwe.

Next: The Renaissance and Early Globalism

The Medieval era was vast and complex, encompassing multiple cultures and regions. Although this is just a brief overview (as brief as 2300 words can be) I plan to go more in-depth in the future on other details.

Europe is responsible for creating or influencing nearly all art forms after the Medieval era. Once Europe began to colonize the globe, they left their marks on basically every culture. In some cases, they destroyed the works of the conquered people. Disentangling indigenous art from European art is a fairly recent invention.

Historians typically say “the Modern Age” begins in 1500 AD, although it begins later in the art world (there are various debates over when exactly, and I’d say 1900). But more on that next time.

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• I sell physical artwork and journals at ApolloGallery.org with more to come

• I have a masterlist of 100+ AI-related tools for increasing efficiency

• You can hire me for graphic design work

• And if you don’t already know, I’m on both Twitter and Instagram

Pottery and music are typically the first advanced arts to develop in a culture, followed by other creative endeavors like poetry and textile work. Painting is often dead last. Even though painting was among humanity’s first inventions it wasn’t considered a true standalone art until the time of the ancient Greeks and Romans. Before that, it often played a complementary role, such as wall frescos or sculptural accents. It wasn’t until the Italian Renaissance that painting entered the realm of the masters.

Mesopotamia

The first examples of proto-writing date to around 7000-4000 BC, well after the Neolithic Revolution. The earliest settlements included Çatalhöyük and Uruk. The first coherent writing systems (cuneiform and hieroglyphics) emerged around 3500-3000 BC.

Sargon of Akkad's daughter Enheduanna, Sumerian high priestess of the moon god Nanna (Suen) and goddess Inanna (Ishtar), may have been the first female poet and even the first named author in history. A disc excavated in 1927 included her name and dates to around 2300 BC. She was a priestess for at least 40 years until her death around 2250 BC.

At least two works are attributed to her, “The Exaltation of Inanna” and “Hymn to Inanna,” and she may have authored or edited up to 45-50 poems total. It’s not clear whether Enheduanna actually wrote or composed everything herself (it’s impossible to prove) but her name does appear, which was unusual in ancient history–especially for a woman. The Epic of Gilgamesh and Atra-Hasis, for example, as history’s first written epic poems (2100-1700 BC), were authored anonymously.

One theory speculated that Enheduanna’s name was added later; the original works, if they existed, have not survived–what we have are Babylonian copies from 1800 BC onwards (also see: The Decad), and the Babylonians might’ve wanted to give extra legitimacy to such works by associating them with Sargon of Akkad’s influential dynasty. Sargon had been dead for centuries (since ~2279 BC) by the time of the Babylonian Empire.

Also in Mesopotamia, we have the names of many musicians (like Haddamilku, Ur-Utu, Rišiya, and Warad-Ilišu) although most details of their contributions remain unknown. Music was of great importance and many types of instruments were invented. Some were thought of as gods or aspects of gods. Cities had schools of music, royal musicians, and some of the world’s oldest foundations for music theory. Musical notation existed from at least 1400-1250 BC.

King Shulgi of Ur (r. 2094-2046 BC) claimed to be an expert with several instruments and wrote various poems. He boasted of many accomplishments, most of which are probably untrue, and declared himself a god at one point. He did accomplish things of importance though, such as completing the Great Ziggurat of Ur (begun by his father) and promoting the oldest surviving law code (Code of Ur-Nammu, also begun or completed by his father).

The well-known Code of Hammurabi came soon after. While not physically written by the king himself (likely dictated or outlined by Hammurabi to royal scribes), it was another cultural landmark.

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Outside of Mesopotamia

The Egyptian Middle Kingdom (2040-1782 BC) was a time when art and literature expanded, referred to by later ancient Egyptians as “classics,” but authorship continued to be primarily anonymous. Exceptions included The Satire of the Trades, attributed to the scribe Kheti of Sile. The Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor, while the author is unknown, has the signature of the scribe (Amenaa) and is the world’s oldest signature on papyrus.

Amenhotep (1425-1356 BC) was one of Egypt’s most important scribes. Also a priest and architect, he was sometimes referred to as a philosopher (although we have none of his works) and deified after his death. Amenemope, an Egyptian scribe, is the likely author of the Instruction of Amenemope, written between 1300-1075 BC at the earliest.

Egyptian Pharaohs requested artists and sculptors from foreign kings during the Bronze Age (Minoan, etc) but generally didn’t name specific people. Diplomatic messages were more akin to “please send me your best column guy because I have a cool project for him.”

The Duke of Zhou (r. 1042-1035 BC) is credited with writing the Chinese I Ching and the Book of Poetry.

The “Golden Age of Chinese philosophy” (including the rise of Confucianism and Taoism) dates to the “Hundred Schools of Thought” of 600-221 BC.

Early Sanskrit literature included the Mahabharata (400 BC - 400 AD) and Purāṇas attributed to Krishna Dvaipayana, as well as the Rāmāyana (800-300 BC) attributed to the sage Vālmīki. Most early Indian works, like other early works, were oral.

Greece

The Greek poet Homer, probably living around 900-700 BC, is credited with telling the story of The Iliad and The Odyssey. The Athenian politician Pisistratus (600-527 BC) is said to be first to collect and organize Homer’s oral poetry. Other famous works from this time include the Works and Days and Theogony from Hesiod, who was thought to be active between 750 and 650 BC.

Art was elevated to a new prominence after the end of the Greek Dark Ages in 776 BC. We know of countless artists, including the Nine Lyric Poets:

• Alcman of Sparta (7th century BC)

• Stesichorus of Metauros (7th century BC)

• Sappho of Lesbos (630-570 BC)

• Alcaeus of Mytilene (~600 BC)

• Anacreon of Teos (6th century BC)

• Ibycus of Rhegium (6th century BC)

• Simonides of Ceos (6th century BC)

• Bacchylides of Ceos (5th century BC)

• Pindar of Thebes (5th century BC)

Later Greek artists and authors included Sophocles, Aeschylus, Euripides, Parrhasius, Zeuxis, Phidias, Polykleitos, Myron, and Herodotus.

The Gallery of Apollo

Art in Ancient Greece: Art History 101

We left off in Europe last time with the Bronze Age Collapse of 1200 BC: Since written records are few from the resulting Mediterranean dark ages, we don’t know much about what happened. A lot of early art and architecture also used wood, which decayed over time and little evidence remains…

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3 years ago · 4 likes · BowTiedApollo

Greece is credited as the primary foundation of Western Civilization for many reasons, and its multi-century explosion of artistic accomplishment is a major contributing factor.

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This is a reader-supported publication. For further support of my work:

• I sell physical artwork and journals at ApolloGallery.org with more to come

• I have a masterlist of 100+ AI-related tools for increasing efficiency

• You can hire me for graphic design work

• And if you don’t already know, I’m on both Twitter and Instagram

But what about pre-human art history? The origin of anatomically modern humans dates to just 200,000-300,000 years ago, before we had the capacity for coherent language and cumulative culture.

Neanderthals and Denisovans

In my previous Substack article, I mentioned that Neanderthal culture was more complex than stereotypes dictate. For example, evidence of Neanderthal activity has been found on islands thousands of years before Homo sapiens developed sailing. A club-swinging numbskull doesn’t build boats. There’s something more here.

The use of ochre (a clay pigment) has a history of use in ancient burials, as are flowers. Some scholars suggest that pigment could’ve been used by Neanderthals as body paint or to adorn clothing. We have evidence of ochre use as far back as 250,000 years, but applications are unconfirmed, and we aren’t certain if it has symbolic meaning. A 2012 study noted “The use of manganese and iron oxides by late Neandertals is well documented in Europe, especially for the period 60–40 kya.” In 2018, a study dated some Iberian cave paintings to 64,000 years ago, attributing them to Neanderthals since humans hadn’t entered Europe yet.

Neanderthals appear to have created jewelry using shells, bone, feathers, and/or stone, even before they attempted painting. Or etching/carving: a purported cave etching is more than 39,000 years old, predating humans in the area. 

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As humans migrated into Europe, they fought and allied with groups like the Neanderthals. Before their eventual extinction, traces of Neanderthal DNA began showing in ancient humans, as high as 6% between 63,000 and 43,000 BC.

Neanderthal culture was fairly complex; they had stone tools, fire, medicine, paint, clothing, musical instruments, and even basic boats. We don’t know how much of this was shared with early humans, versus how much we figured out on our own.

Genetic analysis shows that distinct lineages emerged between 70,000 and 50,000 years ago. African, Eurasian, Oceanic, etc. This is also around the time that early language and modern cognition seems to have appeared in humans. Shortly thereafter, we see a split between “a West Eurasian lineage” and “an East Eurasian lineage.” Most groups became effectively geographically isolated.

The Earliest Cultures

Different environments and evolutionary pressures led to subtle yet distinct changes in genetic diversity, especially after 37,000 years ago, when the Aurignacian culture came into being. Researchers estimate that the European population was between 1,738 and 28,800 people at this time. Some of their DNA is still present in modern Europeans.

The Aurignacians (41-31k BC) are considered Europe’s first culture. They painted in caves, put together jewelry, made tools from stone and bone, and crafted early figurines. The most famous is probably the “lion person,” a dramatic ivory figure called the world’s oldest statue.

From there we transition to the Gravettian culture (31-19k BC) which is “archaeologically the last European culture many consider unified.” They’re responsible for many of the famous (albeit ugly) Venus figurines.

The peak of cave painting is associated with both cultures along with some others. Cave paintings are typically 15,000 to 40,000 years old. The famous Lascaux cave paintings date back to around 17,000 years ago.

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The Last Glacial Maximum and the Neolithic Revolution

This is roughly 20,000 BC to 10,000 BC. The Last Glacial Maximum means what it implies–this was when the ice sheets covering the North were at their greatest extent. This, in part, forced populations further south.

Genetic lineages expanded as groups became more isolated from other populations. For example, there’s West European Hunter-Gatherer (WHG) and Early European Farmers (EEF). The farming population was closely related to Mesolithic populations of West Asia (Anatolia and the Caucasus) nearer where agriculture was first developed (the Fertile Crescent).

Culturally, groups remained largely similar to the Aurignacians and Gravettians. Their successors included an “Epi-Gravettian” (19k-6k BC) and a group named the Solutrean (20-15k BC). The latter is known mostly for their advanced techniques with flint.

Archeological finds include: “Large thin spear-heads; scrapers with edge not on the side but on the end; flint knives and saws, but all still chipped, not ground or polished; long spear-points, with tang and shoulder on one side only, are also characteristic implements of this epoch. Bone or horn, too, was used. The Solutrian work exhibits a transitory stage of art between the flint implements of the Mousterian and the bone implements of the Madelenian epochs. The fauna includes the horse, reindeer, mammoth, cave lion, rhinoceros, bear and urus.”

The Magdalenian culture was rather long-lived (18-10k BC) and associated with reindeer hunting. Their work with bone was unusually complex especially compared to previous stone tools. And while they didn’t create pottery, they did work with clay in new ways, and built some of the earliest tents.

Side note: mammoths went extinct in Europe around 10-8k BC.

Other early cultures included:

• Hamburg culture (14-11k BC)

• Federmesser culture (12-11k BC)

• Ahrensburgian (11-10k BC)

• Azilian (11-8k BC)

• Swiderian culture (11-8k BC)

• Fosna–Hensbacka culture (8-7k BC)

• Maglemosian culture (9-6k BC)

• The Estonian Kunda culture (9-5k BC)

Some humans began transitioning from hunter-gatherers to agricultural societies around 10,000 years ago. They domesticated animals, the first of which was dogs. (One paper suggests that dogs were domesticated thousands of years before farming.) As free time increased, so did early foundations of art and writing (proto-writing).

After Agriculture

After 8,000 BC, we see an interesting change in genetic makeup. Around 7,000 years ago, all across the world, data points to “a decline in the male effective population size during the Neolithic to approximately one-twentieth of its original level before the Neolithic.” Except the overall global population continued to increase, so a natural disaster couldn’t be the cause (for example, the alleged Toba disaster).

Researchers suggest “Patrilineal kin group competition” as the answer–a cultural shift and increase in warfare. The genetic bottleneck then decreased alongside the emergence of more complex societies, such as chiefdoms and regional states.

Which is something that we do see, and very obviously at that. The Stone Age ended in Europe around 5500 BC as metalworking was discovered. The Chalcolithic, or Copper Age, was a transitional era between the Neolithic and the Bronze Age.

Central/Eastern European culture between 7000-2000 BC is sometimes referred to as “Danubian culture.” This includes the important Linear Pottery culture. These peoples worked metal, domesticated animals, built longhouses, cultivated the soil, and more markers of advanced complex societies.

The Vinča culture (mainly 5700-4500 BC) has one of the world’s earliest copper mines (Rudna Glava) plus evidence of metalworking, pottery, figurines, and advanced farming knowledge. They’re credited by one source with introducing wheat and plowing to Europe. The Serbian government calls them the “Cradle of European civilization.”

Other cultures at this time included:

• Cucuteni–Trypillia culture (5500-2750 BC)

• Kongemose culture (6-5k BC)

• Ertebølle culture (5-4k BC)

• Varna culture (5-4k BC)

The Varna are especially notable for their vast quantities of gold and massive cemetery complex. They were possibly the richest culture in the world at the time.

Another major shift in early European culture came after 3000 BC with the invasion (or migration) of the Indo-European peoples. Primarily based on the Yamnaya culture from the Pontic-Caspian Steppes. We don’t know for sure if it was violent, but either way, large amounts of Indo-European (Western Steppe Herder, Ancient North Eurasian, etc) DNA became infused into local populations. Languages changed drastically, as did religious beliefs. (More on this in the future.)

Modern European ancestry is now mostly categorized by differences in three main groups of DNA makeup:

1. Western Hunter-Gatherer (WHG)

2. Early European Farmer (EEF)

3. Ancient North Eurasian (ANE) which is generally less than 20% of ancestry and the likely origin of blond hair

Other important cultures included those of the Bell Beaker and Corded Ware.

The End of Prehistory

“Prehistory” ended as writing systems developed. Early examples of potential writing include the wooden Dispilio Tablet dating to 5202 BC and the disputed Tărtăria tablets from 5500-2750 BC.

The European Bronze Age began around 4000-2300 BC, varying by region. The Minoan culture, based out of Crete, is especially notable for being “the first advanced civilization in Europe” with their still-undeciphered writing systems (generally considered the first known writing in Europe).

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This is a reader-supported publication. For further support of my work:

• I sell physical artwork and journals at ApolloGallery.org with more to come

• I have a masterlist of 100+ AI-related tools for increasing efficiency

• You can hire me for graphic design work

• And if you don’t already know, I’m on both Twitter and Instagram

(Side note: although the following is written for the perspective of a musician, you may get ideas even as a non-musician. Some concepts and modes of thought are true across multiple niches.)

Building funnels and flywheels can easily boost profits and help build a brand. Not just a band.

“What’s a sales funnel,” you might ask? Here’s a quick overview:

A sales funnel is the journey a potential customer takes to become a customer. First you catch their attention and persuade them to evaluate your offer(s). Then you offer a variety of upsells, cross-sells, and downsells, so both sides get as much value as possible from the transaction. This includes options both before and after they click buy. 

Once you have someone’s contact information (email and/or phone number) you can bring them into your long-term ecosystem. (For example, having “opt in to special offers” as a checkbox during checkout, which signs the customer up to a mailing list.) Send occasional messages with offers or updates (you may want to take an email Marketing course for this step) and satisfied customers will continue to buy from you. Purchases aren’t one-and-done. 

Even failed transactions present an opportunity via “abandoned cart” emails. If a customer goes through the checkout process but doesn’t reach the final step of paying (for whatever reason) you may be able to entice them to continue.

There are lots of monetization options in the music sphere. 

When a fan discovers a band, there's:

- Streaming

- Digital albums

- Physical albums

- Merch (shirts, stickers, posters, etc)

- Live performances

- Etc.

Many bands now focus solely on streaming for digital outreach. This is a HUGE mistake.

• Streaming payouts are dogshit (fractions of pennies)

• You don’t control streaming services, so you don’t have direct access to your fans

• Streaming is often low quality audio (128 kbps) which doesn’t give your audience the best experience

• Streaming is ephemeral, and your band can be forgotten without permanent reminders of its existence

• Everyone is doing streaming, so you’re harder to find organically, lost in the noise and/or algorithmic bias

Let’s go over more potential options within their appropriate context.

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The Roman Kingdom and Etruscan Art

The Etruscans (also known as Villanovans in their early stages) were Italy’s first Iron Age civilization, developing ironworking by 900 BC.

The Italian peninsula was home to several cultures in its early years:

There are several myths about the origins of the Roman people. In one legend, in the wake of the Trojan War, the hero Aeneas grouped up with other survivors and looked to begin a new nation. Their descendants included the twins Romulus and Remus, who were ordered to die so they wouldn’t threaten a local king’s rule. The twins were raised by a she-wolf until a shepherd adopted them. They eventually became leaders, overthrew the king, and set out to create their own city, deciding upon a region with seven hills. Arguments ensued over which hill to use and Remus was slain in this conflict. Romulus served as Rome’s first king from 753 to 716 BC, soon after the Greek Dark Ages of 1200-776 BC.

753 BC could be accurate, since there’s archeological evidence of Roman settlement and expansion from that time. We also see a transition from the Romans being inspired primarily by Etruscan art to more influence from the Greeks.

Etruscans passed many important ideas to the Romans. This included temples, sarcophagi, burial urns, death masks, togas, chariot racing, arches, and vaults. Some ideas, like their alphabet, stemmed from Greek contact. 

Wood, bronze, and terracotta were common building materials, as only Classical Greece could afford widespread use of marble at the time. Influence from Egyptian and Greek culture is visible in Etruscan works, as most Mediterranean cultures were connected.

With the founding of Rome, a Roman Kingdom developed, and warfare soon spread across the peninsula.

Romans held Greek art in high esteem, especially after 212 BC. Roman artists often made copies or derivative works of Greek sculptures. Fortunately, this gave us a better picture of Greek art, since many original works didn’t survive the ravages of time. We have to rely on Roman versions and written records to prove their existence. And even before the Romans conquered the Greeks, the wealthy commissioned Greek works, to decorate country villas and more.

Both Etruscan and Greek artists were highly skilled, and the collision of both cultures led to the Romans having some of the world’s greatest works of the era.

As the art world evolved, the Romans developed their own style and national identity, as well as landmark inventions like concrete and domes. 

The Roman Republic and Roman Empire

The Roman Kingdom became the Roman Republic in 509 BC after the overthrow of their short-lived monarchy.

480-300 BC is considered the peak of Etruscan art; their “classical” period. Their culture was soon absorbed by the Romans and became less important compared to Hellenistic/Greek art. By 200-100 BC, most of Rome’s sculptors were allegedly Greek, sometimes held as slaves.

The main difference between “Roman” and classical Greek sculpture is that the Romans were more interested in realism, as opposed to the idealism displayed in Greece. Faces take on more signs of age and wear, while bodies are less muscular and youthful.

The Romans soon became the Mediterranean’s prime power. They controlled nearly all of Italy by the start of the Punic Wars in 264 BC. The Roman world expanded from there, including the Achaean War (146 BC) which gave them control over Greece.

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The Roman Empire

By most accounts, we can set the founding of the empire to 27 BC, when Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus was declared princeps and Augustus. Rome was the largest and richest city in the Mediterranean around this time. This led to the so-called Pax Romana, viewed as Rome’s Golden Age (27 BC to 180 AD).

Emperor Augustus was one of history’s biggest art patrons, promoting everything from literature to monuments. He was quoted "I found a Rome of bricks; I leave to you one of marble." He, and other emperors, understood the value of political and religious symbolism.

De Architectura (30-20 BC) is one of the most important early resources on architecture. It compiled Greco-Roman knowledge on city planning, aqueducts, water mills, central heating, and more.

The Colosseum opened in 80 AD, a year after Mount Vesuvius buried Pompeii in ash.

Trajan's Column was completed in 113 AD.

The Arch of Septimius Severus dates back to 203 AD.

One Roman contribution to art was the idea of the equestrian statue. It wasn’t uniquely a Roman invention, but they were greater fans than most other cultures. Sculptors created at least 22 commemorative statues of war heroes and leaders in Rome (generally bronze) although none have survived except one of Marcus Aurelius from about 175 AD. The idea was given new life in the Renaissance, for example Giambologna’s 1598 statue of Grand Duke Cosimo I.

It’s impossible to overstate how much art flowed throughout the Roman Empire. Roads, bathhouses, glassware, silverware, jewelry, gemcutting, etc. But this article is long enough as it is.

For more examples of Julio-Claudian art, here’s a compilation of over 43,000 photos: https://www.flickr.com/groups/93273909@N00/ 

There are many dates for the fall of the Roman Empire. 476 AD is a popular choice; the Germanic king Odoacer overthrew the last Emperor of the Western half, Romulus Augustulus, and became King of Italy.

Christian art largely began emerging after it was legalized.in 313 AD with the Edict of Milan. Early Christian-Roman art include the marble Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus and the Dogmatic Sarcophagus (330-340). Earlier examples do exist, like the Dura Europos wall paintings (240) but such art was on the fringes of Roman society due to ongoing persecution. The Vienna Genesis (500-600 AD) is one of the earliest illustrated Bibles.

Byzantine art used more overt Christian symbolism while blending Greco-Roman and Eastern styles. More on that later.

An early mosaic masterpiece: the Alexander Mosaic from 120-100 BC.

The Egyptians

The Greeks felt a particularly close affinity with Egypt and you can see the influence in their art. Herodotus wrote in Histories that “the Egyptians deemed themselves to be the oldest nation on earth.” A little later, he recounted that Egyptian priests could trace their genealogy back 345 generations (Book 2, Chapter 143). An impressive achievement by anyone’s reckoning, even in modern times. The Near East undoubtedly had an influence on the younger Mediterranean civilizations.

After the Bronze Age Collapse (1200 BC), the New Kingdom (1550-1069 BC) was followed by a period of decline. This was effectively the end of independent Egyptian art development. Their art retreated slightly into familiar, traditional, styles during the decline. Egypt was then conquered by the Assyrians, and the Persians, before Alexander the Great (356-232 BC) swept through the world. Also see: the Ptolemaic Kingdom.

Then came the Roman Period (30 BC to 619-641 AD) which was followed by the Muslim conquest of Egypt. The Muslims remained largely in control of Egypt until the Medieval era, where the Black Death killed 40% of the population, and the Ottoman Turks conquered Egypt in 1517 AD.

The Fayum mummy portraits from the Roman era are one example of evolving cultural norms. You can see how deeply Egyptian art was affected by Greek and Roman culture.

From The Met:

“For the first century following the Roman conquest, Egypt functioned in the Mediterranean world as an active and prosperous Roman province… produced papyrus, glass, and various finely crafted minor arts that were exported to the rest of the Roman empire. Its deserts yielded a variety of minerals, ores, and fine stones such as porphyry and granite, which were brought to Rome to be used for sculpture and architectural elements.”

“The conquest of Egypt and its incorporation into the Roman empire inaugurated a new fascination with its ancient culture. Obelisks and Egyptian-style architecture and sculpture were installed in Roman fora.”

Outside of Egypt, other Mediterranean-adjacent cultures included those of Mesopotamia.

The Near East

The Neo-Assyrian Empire controlled most of the Near East at the time of Rome’s founding, followed by the Neo-Babylonian Empire.

Assyrian lion hunt reliefs, from around 645 BC, are some of the earliest examples of “narrative sculpture”–one method of telling stories (often mythological). The Assyrians preferred the bas-relief (low) style of carving, where the subject doesn’t protrude much. Paint was used to emphasize figures. The Egyptians by contrast liked the sunk relief where you carve lines directly into the stone.

The famous Ishtar Gate was built around 575 BC under King Nebuchadnezzar II.

King Cyrus the Great founded the Achaemenid Empire, also known as the first Persian empire. Initially a vassal to the Median Empire, he led a revolt in 553-550 BC and overthrew them. From there his forces spread across the Near East, eventually leading to one of the world’s largest empires.

However, the Persians never united the region under a singular culture. It was a multi-state empire of semi-autonomous regions. This resulted in some different art styles, including the creation of a new Persian style.

Although Alexander the Great conquered the Achaemenid Empire by 330-328 BC, and more Hellenistic influences entered Mesopotamian art, the region kept much of their traditions. It isn’t as much of a difference as, say, Egypt.

The End of the Iron Age

The end of the Iron Age varies by region, so there isn’t a clean transition out of “ancient art.” Historians often put it after the collapse of the unified Roman Empire (395-476 AD). That’s what changed Europe enough so that the Medieval Era could begin.

The final two Seven Wonders, the Colossus of Rhodes and the Pharos Lighthouse of Alexandria, were built near the end of this era.

The Roman Republic (and Roman Empire) had a lasting influence on Europe which continues to the present day. Many cultures have considered themselves spiritual successors to the empire, including the United States of America.

Next up: Byzantine Art and the Middle Ages, from approximately 300-1500 AD. Or maybe we’ll explore the non-Mediterranean Iron Age first.

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The Gallery of Apollo

Timeline of Western Art, from Prehistoric to Ancient: Art History 101

Art is universal across all cultures. Creativity is in every corner of the globe, is essential to every civilization, and spans up to 100,000 years of human history. We can roughly organize periods of art into six categories: Prehistoric Bronze Age Iron Age…

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3 years ago · 1 like · 2 comments · BowTiedApollo

Since written records are few from the resulting Mediterranean dark ages, we don’t know much about what happened. A lot of early art and architecture also used wood, which decayed over time and little evidence remains.

The Greek Dark Ages

This lasted a little over 400 years. Archeological evidence focuses on pottery and bronze figurines, although many foundations of later Greek culture were laid here. This includes the polis (city-state), large temples, and Greek alphabet all coming into their own.

Art in this time period trended toward a new geometric style, perhaps influenced by Doric invaders, along with Egypt and the Near East.

Other than that, the most notable artistic works were oral poetry. Specifically, from Homer and Hesiod.

Homer is the most famous of all Greek poets, although details of his life are unclear, and we don’t even know if he was a real person. He could’ve been several people, since his resulting work is thought to stem from different stories which merged over time. In either case, we all know his legacy: the Iliad and the Odyssey, epic tales of Greek ideals and mythology surrounding the Trojan War and its aftermath. (Eratosthenes, a chief librarian at the Library of Alexandria, put the Trojan War at 1194-1184 BC.) The Athenian politician Pisistratus is said to be first to collect and organize Homer’s poems. (Also see: “Peisistratean recension” and “The Epic Cycle”)

Hesiod, in contrast, discussed common life/beliefs and was more of a realist. He was thought to be active between 750 and 650 BC, and may have lived at the same time as Homer. Hesiod is best known for Works and Days (basically a farmer’s almanac) and Theogony (the origins of the gods).

Archaic Greece

“Archaic Greece“ spans the years between the Greek Dark Ages and the biggest conflict of the time–the Greco-Persian Wars around 500 to 450 BC.

The “Dark Ages” ended with our first accepted date, the first Olympic Games of 776 BC. Greeks referenced winners, making dating easier from here on out, and measured time by Olympiads. Early records are less reliable but there isn’t any significant disagreement that the Olympics began in 800-700 BC, with other games following in 600-500 BC. The four Panhellenic Games (Olympic, Pythian, Nemean, Isthmian) also influenced the arts. Athletes entered artistic competitions as well as physical. Most people don’t know this.

The most ambitious young men in Greece made it their goal to win as many games as they could, and if possible, hold the crown for all four Panhellenic Games. Winners didn’t receive much of a prize at the games themselves–just a garland–but they could be awarded fame and fortune in their hometowns. A city might allow an Olympic winner to eat at the public dining halls for free, or have statues of him, for example.

Today we know the Olympics for athletic skill, but in ancient times they were important for cultural development as well. There’s a theory that Greek sculpture and art evolved from its geometric style partly because artists attended the Panhellenic Games; they could study the human form in every pose imaginable, and competition between artists led them to increasingly elaborate works to win prizes.

There are stories of beauty contests too, since the Greeks prized beauty so highly. There was the kallisteia for women and euandria (or euexia) for men. These were potentially inspired by the legendary Judgment of Paris. Contests were especially prominent in Elis, Tenedos, and the island of Lesbos.

Lesbos is famous today for the poet Sappho (630-570 BC). Greeks widely praised her work, and declared her “the tenth muse,” although unfortunately few examples have survived. Also unfortunate is that she’s now best known for the modern words “sapphic” and “lesbian.” Nobody knows if she was a lesbian and it’s irrelevant conjecture. What IS known is that she was considered a brilliant poet and, according to some, second only to Homer.

In the visual arts, things soon evolved past their Geometric and Egyptian influences.

Kouros statues (around 600-480 BC) are thought to have been grave markers. There’s a clear Egyptian and Mesopotamian influence in the aesthetic and technique. Forms are stiff, nearly symmetrical, and often life-sized.

Black-figure painting developed in pottery around 700 BC, while Athenians developed the well-known red-figure vase painting technique around 530-520 BC. 

Greek columns, arguably their most famous architectural feature, emerged as we know it today with the Doric style; around 700-600 BC. This marked a shift toward using stone as a primary material, as opposed to wood.  Doric style was simple, masculine-oriented, and geometric, like the art of the late Greek Dark Ages.

The first known temple in the competing Ionic style (Temple of Hera on Samos) was built around 570-560 BC. The famed Temple of Artemis at Ephesus was constructed around 550 BC. Elaborate Corinthian-style columns were the last to be used throughout Greece. The oldest known temple with them dates to 427 BC (Temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae) or 335-334 BC (Choragic Monument of Lysicrates). The Romans later used elements of these columns in their own works.

Pythagoras (570-495 BC) is allegedly responsible for many scientific and mathematical discoveries, including the “Pythagorean theorem” and calculating the Earth’s circumference. He also influenced the arts by possibly popularizing the concept of mathematical proportions in sculpture and architecture, along with “Pythagorean numerology” (similar to the concept of Sacred Geometry). Some parts of music theory are attributed to him as well.

Related to poetry, the ancient Greeks always had a big emphasis on musical prowess.

Most people have heard the myth of Orpheus: a talented musician who charmed his way into the underworld to retrieve the spirit of his dead wife Eurydice. Many artistic works have been inspired by this. By some accounts, however, he was a real person (obviously disputed) and said to be the greatest musician and poet of his time. References to him began appearing around 600-500 BC, as did Orphic Cults, a mystery religion with some connections to Pythagoreanism.

As the Greeks eventually beat back the Persian Empire, their culture trended toward a Golden Age.

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Classical Antiquity

“Classical Greece” is usually deemed the period between the Greco-Persian Wars (including the battles of Marathon and Thermopylae) and Alexander The Great’s death. Around 500 BC to 323 BC. The Statue of Zeus at Olympia and the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus were built during this time period.

The era included some of the world’s most important figures, like:

• Pericles (495-429 BC)

• Herodotus (484-425 BC)

• Phidias (480-430 BC)

• Socrates (470-399 BC) 

• Thucydides (460-400 BC)

• Hippocrates (460-370 BC)

• Aristophanes (446-386 BC)

• Xenophon (430-354 BC)

• Plato (428-347 BC)

• Aristotle (384-322 BC)

• Demosthenes (384-322 BC)

Also worthy of note (among others too numerous to name) are the “three ancient Greek tragedians” Sophocles, Aeschylus, and Euripides. Aeschylus' Oresteia in particular has been called the greatest work of literature to exist between Homer and Shakespeare.

Pliny the Elder wrote in The Natural History that the painter Zeuxis, for a contest, created such a realistic still life that birds tried to eat the grapes he painted. His rival Parrhasius won that contest though, and is credited with the invention of chiaroscuro.

It’s difficult to discuss painting since so few examples survive in any meaningful way. This is why pottery, sculpture, and architecture tends to be on most peoples’ minds. But the Greeks did make great advances in technique, form, and color, laying the groundwork for the future European Renaissance.

Most ancient Greek works show an idealized world, if not subtly enhanced. Many statues were modeled after the Olympic winners who were viewed as the peak of physical beauty. Artists preferred to show humanity at its best.

Greeks used what’s called the “lost-wax technique” for bronze. You’d create a wax sculpture and surround it with clay. Heating the clay solidifies it (like firing pottery) while melting the wax away to create an empty space. Molten metal (usually bronze) is then poured into the clay. Lastly, artisans would polish the cooled metal and add details like glass eyes.

Artists abandoned the Archaic style by creating statues in increasingly relaxed and natural poses. Early statues (480-450 BC) were still a bit stiff and formal, although they quickly became elaborate and elegant (450-323 BC) with realistic fabric folds and expressive poses. This included contrapposto. Historians sometimes divide these into Early/High/Late Classical.

Sculptors moved from bronze to marble and ivory, partly because of its added realism. Artists like Phidias and Polykleitos preferred it, although some like Myron stuck with bronze.

The Golden Age of Athens ended with the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC) and the Corinthian War (395-387 BC). Although the Spartans were victorious in both, they were short-lived victories. Their defeat at the 371 BC Battle of Leuctra kicked Sparta into steep decline. They faced many issues and weren’t able to recover.

The Spartans have little surviving art and architecture. They preferred music and poetry over painting and sculpture. These are easier to lose with the passage of time. It’s said that Sparta was rich in art in its earliest years, and this fell off as the culture became militarized. This was viewed as necessary since so few Spartan citizens existed compared to the lower classes, and tight control over their numerous slaves (Helots) consumed much “free time.”

Hellenistic Era

Macedon’s rise to power was the next big event. King Phillip II began expanding his territory around 359 BC. By one account, his goal was to stabilize Greece in preparation for another war with Persia. His son Alexander the Great took the Macedonian throne in 336 BC. He conquered the Achaemenid Persian Empire by 330-328 BC and continued from there.

The time between Alexander’s death (323 BC) and the emergence of the Roman Empire (31 BC) is known as the “Hellenistic period.“ This is considered the height of Greek cultural influence on the Mediterranean world.

Alexander’s generals (Diadochoi) divided his territory into their own pieces. Goods and ideas flowed between the Greeks and the areas under their tenuous control. Artistic expression expanded, with even Buddhist art taking on some Greek sculptural thought. Greek Elites commissioned many works in their new lands.

“Classical” Greece is best known for its idealism. They used elements of proportion, harmony, symmetry, and other objective standards of beauty. By the time of Hellenistic Greece, these were falling more to the background in favor of lifelike art with flowing lines. Movement over elegance. Drama over formality. Emotion over stoicism.

The famous Venus de Milo was carved around 150-125 BC. Laocoön and His Sons, one of Greece’s most elaborate works, is thought to date to 27 BC at the earliest. Although these are technically after the Hellenistic period, they’re the natural evolution of this mindset and arguably its peak, not to be equaled until the Renaissance.

The Romans eventually displaced Greek dominance during the Punic Wars (264-146 BC).

We’ll discuss the Roman Empire, and beyond, next time:

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Genealogical research isn’t straightforward and most people don’t know where to start. Many records are full of contradictions, or are incomplete, if you can find them at all.

Let’s draft up a quick plan of attack.

Begin with the first 5 generations of one line. You can start with your father’s side (patrilineal) or your mother’s side (matrilineal). Then do the other.

1. Great-great grandfather

2. Great-grandfather

3. Grandfather

4. Father

5. You

Five generations doesn’t sound like much, but I’ve found that most people don’t know everything even within these recent years. Fill out this small area of your family tree, then you can expand from there.

For each person, you’ll want to find out:

• When and where they were born (birth certificate and/or baptismal record)

• When and where they became married (marriage license or application, or announcement in the local paper)

• When and where they died (obituary and/or gravestone)

• Who their parents were (census data)

• Who their children were (census data)

Create a folder/document to save all information, plus supporting information (links, pictures, newspaper articles, documents, family photos, etc) for each data point. Save everything and don’t assume it’ll stay on the internet forever. Sometimes websites go down, links break, or information is lost.

The better organized you are when you start out, the fewer headaches you’ll have later.

Now we know what information to look for. Where do you go to find it?

I’d start with FamilySearch.org because it’s pretty comprehensive especially for a free service. You can also build a family tree (some software does this too), cite sources for everything, and the site will auto-suggest information which seems like a close match. Sometimes it links to both paid (ex. Ancestry) and free (ex. FindAGrave) websites. It may even give you a head start by providing partial family trees.

Depending on whether your tree contains any genealogy chads, they may have done a lot of the work already. You’ll usually find this information on FamilySearch, Ancestry, or Geni. Some families may have their own websites or even books. Genealogy varies considerably from family to family. For example, one branch of my family had about 100 years of information, and another branch had almost 1,000 years.

Eventually, you’ll start running out of information or otherwise find gaps in the family tree. The most obvious thing to do is talk to your family members. They may have newspaper clippings, personal stories, or other valuable details.

Save information about people too, not just dates and names. What did they do for a living? What type of home did they keep? What were their hobbies, dreams, and aspirations? This type of information can be difficult to get, especially as you go further back. Future generations will thank you for compiling it, if it exists.

Military/war records can be a figurative gold mine. The National Park Service has a search for Civil War soldiers, and there are organizations like Daughters of the American Revolution for more.

The National Archives are somewhat hit-or-miss.

Also see: SearchForAncestors.com

The next step is to use the Ancestry.com free trial since they have some of the most comprehensive records. The cost isn’t high if you need more time. You can do their DNA test too, but don’t expect it to reveal much.

Remember: keep in mind that many records are contradictory, incomplete, or missing. Typos are common too, as are abbreviations and nicknames. You may find 3-5 different names for the same person, especially if they changed their name after immigrating. This is part of why the data trail is important and you save everything. Finding connections between people may not have obvious answers.

Overall, you shouldn’t have any big problems filling out the first 5 generations of your family tree with the above resources, even if your family has a lot of recent immigrants. It just takes time. Step it up to 10 generations if you can, then 15. If you can get above 15, that’s impressively well-documented.

For more information, you’ll probably have to hit the road: historical societies, libraries, newspapers, and churches/parishes.

Local churches are particularly important because their records often go back further than government organizations. This becomes even more important in turbulent areas, like those formerly controlled by the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Churches may be a one-stop-shop too: baptisms, marriages, and burials all performed by the same church for a single family.

This is part of why it’s so important to know where people lived. Mobility was more limited in the past compared to today’s world. If someone got married in one area, they probably stayed there until they died, or nearby. It makes record-finding easier.

Alternatively, you can try to pay someone to do all the research for you. But I don’t know how deep genealogical researchers will go, or where to find them, or how much it’d cost. Personally I recommend letting the autism flow, and diving deep into your family history.

“Who controls the past controls the future.” ― George Orwell

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There’s wide disagreement over when and how the Americas were settled. Humans could’ve moved into the Americas anywhere between 50,000 and 10,000 years ago. Maybe earlier. Archeological evidence is inconclusive and incomplete.

What people are familiar with is the “Clovis first” theory since it’s taught in grade schools. Nomadic hunter-gatherers walked across the Bering Land Bridge when there were passages through the ice covering a large swathe of the continent. The bridge existed from 45,000 to 12,000 BC, with ice-free valleys appearing in the later stages of this time range. The Clovis culture was thought to be the first major culture to populate the Americas, after 14,000 BC.

Over the past 10-20 years, this theory has been questioned more and more. Dozens of archeological sites have artifacts that can be dated to 20,000 BC or 30,000 BC or even older. The disputed Cerutti Mastodon site even goes back to 129,000 BC.

Many archaeologists now believe the Americas were settled by boat. The “land bridge” hypothesis may have happened concurrently, or in conjunction, or not at all.

In any case, we have little surviving art from so long ago. It’s mostly small stone or bone tools. These early Americans didn’t have writing, megaliths, or other obvious markers of civilization.

North America

The climate stabilized in 8000-7000 BC, allowing early societies to flourish and expand.

Mound building became popular after 4000-3500 BC and is clear evidence of complex societies. Well-known structures include those at Watson Brake (3500 BC), Poverty Point (1700-1100 BC), Serpent Mound (sometime before 300-100 BC), and Moundville (1000 AD).

Early groups generally fall under the “Woodland period” of 1000 BC to 1000 AD. This was a period after hunter-gatherers transitioned to agriculture (1850 BC). Pottery became more widespread as culture and technology advanced.

One early culture was that of the Hopewell, from 200-100 BC to 500 AD. They built large mounds and had a wide variety of art. They created pipes, pottery, necklaces, statues, and other pieces, sometimes using exotic materials like shark teeth and silver. (Note: the Hopewell weren’t exactly a single culture; they were multiple groups which shared some traditions and a large trade network.)

Between 500 and 1000 AD, it becomes more difficult to discuss specific major cultures. Communities spread out and developed their own unique cultures, trading with each other less often, and creating a fragmented landscape with hundreds of different tribes. The modern-day Canadian government recognizes over 600 “First Nations” and the United States recognizes slightly fewer.

North American “cultural areas” can be roughly divided into 10 categories.

Alternatively, they can be organized by language families, but that makes it more complicated.

Either way, it’s difficult to give a broad overview of Native American art, given the sheer variety of cultural spheres of influence.

Some quick examples:

Tribes in the Great Plains made extensive use of beads, feathers, and leather.

Well-known tribal groups in the southwest include the Apache and Navajo, who shared ancestors that entered the region by 1400 AD. While the Apache remained nomadic, the Navajo turned to farming, which they adopted from the Pueblo people.

The Pueblo (Anasazi) Mesa Verde cliff dwellings were built between 1000 and 1300 AD. Some walls, and pottery, were decorated with simple geometric designs. Despite the complexity of the settlement and erecting over 600 buildings, the site was soon abandoned, and the Pueblo migrated further south. Drought is thought to be the main culprit.

Around 1000 AD, Nordic explorers discovered North America (Vinland).

The Woodland period is followed by the Mississippian cultures (mostly 800-1500 AD), which included the Fort Ancient culture and Plaquemine culture, among others. The Mississippians built large pyramid-like mounds. Their ancient city of Cahokia included over 100, including the titanic Monk’s Mound which is considered the largest American pyramid north of Mexico. The area was abandoned around 1350 AD. Since they didn’t develop writing, speculation abounds as to why. It was likely related to climate and/or politics, since no evidence of war has been found.

Christopher Columbus landed in the Caribbean in 1492, which launched many subsequent voyages to the Americas, including those of Amerigo Vespucci (1499), Hernán Cortés (1519), and Francisco Pizarro (1524).

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Central America (Mesoamerica)

Early Mesoamerica (Preclassic & Classic)

Early Mesoamerica (commonly given as 18,000 to 8,000 BC) is characterized by hunter-gatherer tribes and zero pottery. Thus, no art.

Agriculture and permanent settlements began appearing around 3,500 BC, if not earlier. Pottery was introduced around 2300 BC and slowly replaced stone. Initial designs were modeled after early natural vessels like gourds. Since the wheel wasn’t a thing here, they shaped clay by hand and/or used molds. There’s evidence that textiles were woven in 1800-1400 BC.

The first major ancient culture was the Olmecs (1500-400 BC), “known as the ‘mother culture’ of Mesoamerica.” Unfortunately, they didn’t have writing, so much of their history is speculative. Most buildings haven’t survived to the present day either. They used earth and clay to build their settlements, keeping stone only for sculpture.

The Olmec are best known for their colossal stone heads with helmets. Other art includes figurines and jade face masks. They allegedly invented a complex calendar, the famous Mesoamerican ballgame, the number zero, and bloodletting.

In 400-350 BC, Olmec civilization went into sudden and steep decline. Likely from environmental changes such as drought, earthquakes, and/or volcanic eruptions.

Teotihuacan rose in power around this time. Archeological evidence shows that the area began as a collection of small villages in 600-200 BC. Over the next few hundred years, a massive city developed, including some of the world’s largest structures. They’re known for their incredible pyramids, along with murals and obsidian trading. The center of their empire is thought to be the largest city in the Americas at its height (350-650 AD). Like the Olmecs, they didn’t have writing.

Teotihuacan declined in 650-750 AD, in the midst of unknown conflict(s). Speculation says it was a civil war or other uprising; several areas were burned and sacked. Other cultures soon came to prominence in their wake, including the Coyotlatelco and the Toltec culture (which reached its peak in 950-1150 AD).

The Zapotec civilization began around 700-500 BC in southern Mexico (modern-day Oaxaca). They’re well-known for their cities of Mitla and Monte Albán. They continued until about 1500 AD, when Zapotecs came into conflict with the Aztec Empire; the Spanish conquistadors swept through soon after, and defeated the Zapotecs by 1527.

The Great Pyramid of Cholula (Tlachihualtepetl), the world’s largest pyramid by volume, was built in multiple (4-6) stages. It began with a small building in 300-200 BC. Typical for the time, its murals were initially painted only with red pigments.

El Tajín of the Veracruz culture (100-1000 AD) was at its height between 600-800 and 1200 AD. It was an important trade center influenced by the Olmecs and Teotihuacan. Their architecture differed from other Mesoamerican cultures, including the use of cement roofs and decorative niches. It’s not clear what caused the downfall of El Tajín. It’s thought that the city was invaded, burned, and abandoned.

Mayan Culture

The famous Maya civilization is one of the oldest. Small villages dotted the Yucatán Peninsula and surrounding areas as early as 8000-3000 BC. The first complex societies rose after 2000 BC, beginning the “Preclassic Mayan” period, where villages coalesced into cities (generally independent city-states–there was never a “Mayan Empire”). Archeological efforts are ongoing, and we currently believe 750 BC is when the first major cities arose. Causeways and pyramids were built even at early sites like Nakbe and El Mirador.

Tikal was likewise inhabited early, with major construction efforts coming later. Its pyramids and platforms began construction in 400-300 BC. This is also when the Mayans began using a hieroglyphic-style writing system.

Their art is mature and complex, with well-defined techniques alongside a variety of materials and aims.

Calakmul, the “Snake Kingdom,” was one of the largest Mayan powers. In the Late Classic (600-900 AD) it was thought to control a population of 1.75 million people. Their main rival was Tikal, with conflicts taking place in 537-838 AD.

“Classic” Mayan culture, their height of accomplishment, is categorized as 250-900 AD. The Mayan civilization went into steep decline around 800-900 AD. Called the Classic Maya collapse, it’s “one of the greatest unsolved mysteries in archaeology,” much like the European Bronze Age Collapse. Several factors may have gone into the Mayan collapse, and speculation is abundant: disease, drought, invasion, etc.

Other important Mayan sites include: 

• Copán

• Palenque

• Yaxchilan

• Uxmal

• Chichen Itza

Postclassic Mesoamerica

Mesoamerica’s “Postclassic Period” (900-1521 AD) is the final few centuries before the Spanish encountered the Aztec and Maya peoples.

The Aztecs (Mexica) began as a semi-nomadic mercenary tribe traveling south from the present-day American Southwest. (Note: The Aztecs rewrote their own history, so their true origins are unverified.) They made their way down into central Mexico around 1250 AD. In 1325 they founded what would become their capital, the tremendous city Tenochtitlan. The Aztecs grew in power through forming alliances and their experience in warfare. The beginning of the Aztec Empire is assigned to 1427 AD. At the heart of that empire was a vibrant and complex culture of controversial artistic accomplishments. 

The Aztec capital had gardens, farms, man-made islands, levees, drawbridges, aqueducts, bottled water, sanitation workers, saunas, a free-trade market, a police force, a zoo, an aquarium, a museum, temples, etc. They also had schools, including a music school, and the equivalent of an opera house. Flowers, statues, and works of art decorated the streets. The king’s palace had hundreds of rooms, including rooms for visiting nobles or ambassadors. The Spanish called Tenochtitlan the “Venice of the New World.”

Aztecs assigned great importance to poetry and music, and everyone was expected to memorize at least one poem. Their children were taught both art and war, literal warrior-poets. The most famous Aztec poet was the warrior-king Nezahualcoyotl of Texcoco. He was a scholar, architect, engineer, artist, and more.

The Codex Mendoza is one of many sources on Aztec life and history. One of the most famous pieces of Aztec art is the stone calendar of Tenochtitlan, a 12-ton stone disk called the Sun Stone.

For almost a century, the Aztecs controlled a large portion of Mexico, until Hernán Cortés led the collapse of their empire in 1521.

It’s an odd dichotomy—the Aztecs were brutal warriors, famed for human sacrifice and towers of skulls. And yet they had some of the greatest artistic ambitions in the Americas, while known among rivals for their elaborate flowery speech (which allegedly gave the Spaniards’ translators a hard time).

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As for the Mayans? After the Classic Maya collapse diminished their power, they were largely a scattered culture split into warring kingdoms. Chichen Itza benefited, at first, from the decline of other regional powers. They were the dominant power for almost 200 years until their own decline, around 1050-1100 AD.

The Mayan people first came into contact with the Spanish in 1502 and 1511. Hernán Cortés heard of the Aztecs through the Maya, setting the future fall of Tenochtitlan in motion. Even though the Mayans lacked a central power, the Spanish reported that they were wealthy and thriving, comparing their art and architecture to the Egyptians.

The Spanish began their Yucatán colonization efforts in 1527, subjugating a large portion of the peninsula over the years. When they launched their final assault in the 1600s, just one kingdom remained. The last independent Mayan capital fell in 1697.

Because the Mayan culture was so fractured, it took the Spanish longer to conquer them than the Aztecs. Some Mayan culture survives to the present day.

South America

South America was theoretically the last region of the Americas to be settled. Still, like northern sites, we don’t know exactly when or how. It’s thought that human habitation began around 15,000 BC (and of course this is disputed).

Andean South America

The areas around the Andes mountains (the world’s longest continental mountain range) gave rise to the continent’s most famous civilizations, including the Inca.

Plants were domesticated in South America between 8000 and 5000 BC, including potatoes. Llamas and alpacas were kept as both a source of wool and as pack animals. The environment played a large role in how civilizations developed.

Large-scale agriculture began sometime around 3500 BC. Villages and cities followed, along with early platform mounds and temples. Pottery was invented in the Andes around 2000 BC.

The city of Caral, according to some, is the oldest city in the Americas and founded in 3500 BC. The Caral-Supe civilization (Norte Chico) invented Quipu, a mysterious record-keeping system which used knotted and colored strings to convey information. The later Incan Empire used it instead of writing.

Unusually, visual arts are few at Caral. It seems the people preferred music as their art form of choice, alongside their textiles and architecture (conspicuously absent of carvings or stucco).

The next major culture was the Chavín, emerging near the Peruvian coastline around 1000 BC. Like the Caral culture, they didn’t have a writing system, but they did have elaborate art and architecture. Their style influenced other cultures in the Andes, leading to a recognizable regional style similar to Mesoamerican art.

The Muisca culture began emerging around the same time, in modern-day Colombia. They had agriculture and pottery, organizing into a loose confederation of tribes by 800 AD. Their varied and complex art includes significant goldworking, which led to the legend of El Dorado. A Muisca ruler (zipa) would allegedly enter Lake Guatavita with gold dust on his body as part of a ritual. Somehow this became our modern story about a city made of gold. The Spanish conquered the Muisca by 1537-1540, and they still exist today. With their long history and accomplishments, they’re thought of as the fourth most important pre-Columbian civilization (after the Maya, Aztec, and Inca).

The Paracas culture (800-100 BC) is known for their shaft tombs and mummies, along with their skill in textile weaving and water management. Their mummies were buried with elaborate textile wrappings and jewelry, which calls to mind the Egyptians.

The Nazca culture either evolved from Paracas or was strongly influenced by it. They’re best known for their underground aqueducts (puquios) and the Nazca Lines, in the deserts of southern Peru, created between 500 BC and 500 AD. Nobody knows the purpose of the lines; they may point to water sources or various pathways, or serve an astronomical or religious function. It seems they were constructed with rope and wooden posts, a relatively quick and simple method which could be accomplished with just a few people. The culture went into decline after 500, vanishing by 750 AD.

Other kingdoms and cultures rose and fell over time, including the Moche culture (100-700 AD) and Chimú Empire (Chimor Kingdom). The Tiwanaku Empire and Wari Empire both fell around 1100 AD. The Tiwanaku are probably best known for Pumapunku in modern-day Bolivia.

Then, from the city of Cusco, came the Inca Empire. They began expanding in 1438, and within 100 years, controlled the largest empire in the Americas.

Although the Inca didn’t invent the wheel or have an Iron Age, they built an extensive civilization and road network.

Machu Picchu is one of the most recognizable archeological sites in the world. It was built around 1450, possibly as a large royal estate. It’s thought that 750 people lived there among 200 buildings.

A civil war broke out among the Inca in 1529 after arguments over who would take the throne: Huáscar or Atahualpa. While the latter won, the Spanish–led by Francisco Pizarro–captured him soon after, in 1532. After 40 more years of fighting, the last monarch of the empire was killed by the Spanish in 1572.

Non-Andean South America

This region of the world is one of the toughest to do archeology in, mostly because of the size and density of the Amazon rainforest. Many potential sites have been overtaken by the jungle as nature reclaims its own. We don’t know much about eastern South America, especially compared to other regions of the Americas.

Some reported archeological evidence of human activity confusingly predates evidence from North America and Mesoamerica. UNESCO says Serra da Capivara National Park has cave paintings more than 25,000 years old, and some paintings may go back to 48,000 BC.

Early cultures included the Marajoara, and the people of Kuhikugu which may have inspired the “Lost City of Z.” Both built earthwork mounds and their societies collapsed before the Portuguese met them.

Eastern South America didn’t develop the same art, architecture, or agricultural habits as the Andean regions. Tribes had pottery, created geoglyphs, cultivated plants, used “terra preta” (black earth), and more. Yet remained largely semi-nomadic hunter-gatherers throughout history.

Today, it’s widely known that many indigenous groups (estimated at 400+) inhabit the Amazon Basin, and some (estimated at 100) have never come into contact with Europeans or their descendants.

In 1500 AD, Pedro Álvares Cabral claimed Brazil for Portugal. It’s thought that disease became widespread soon after, killing many indigenous groups who had no immunity toward them. Estimates range into the millions.

The Spanish explorer Francisco de Orellana was the first European to sail the Amazon river across the continent. Friar Gaspar de Carvajal documented this trip, reporting signs of vast civilizations. Modern-day LIDAR may corroborate this.

Closing Thoughts

Early American art was vibrant, with parallels with other cultures throughout history. I couldn’t get to literally everything (this is already one of my longest-ever Substack articles) but this can easily be a launchpad for doing further research.

What’s interesting is the apparent human need to stack dirt and stone. Most major cultures practiced some form of mound building, if not outright building pyramids. This is true even of cultures that had no known contact with each other.

Contact with Europe brought a period of upheaval as the Baroque style dominated the globe. Native artistic styles were diminished in favor of what was popular among the Spanish. This remained the case until wars of independence broke out across the Americas, like in Mexico (1810-1821) and further south. Simón Bolívar, the “Liberator of America,” led much of South America to independence (1811-1826).

In modern times, descendants of indigenous Americans (and others) have attempted to revive certain styles and techniques.

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Most people these days know NFTs for “profile pic” collections like Cryptopunks and Bored Ape Yacht Club (BAYC). This isn’t representative of the digital art world as a whole. Let’s discuss the fine art angle instead.

While I haven’t done much in the way of NFTs, either minting or collecting, I do follow a number of NFT artists. Unsurprisingly, they’re mostly artists which fit my vibe. I’d like to take a brief moment to showcase some of their works.

If you’re new around here: I’m fairly traditionalist while willing to embrace new technologies and modes of thought. The works I produce are typically based on the 1700-1900 period: Neoclassicism, Romanticism, Victorian, and Impressionism. Plus other movements like Baroque and the Hudson River School.

I like to experiment with different ideas and styles, as shown on my webstore and Instagram.

Let’s get started.

In no particular order:

DeltaSauce

Delta experiments with different styles, including the concept of liminal space, but some of his works are clearly traditionally-inspired with a modern twist. Classic elements like aqueducts and pillars may appear at any moment.

https://twitter.com/delta_sauce

Sadboi

Sadboi’s works are stylistically reminiscent of ancient Greek red-figure and black-figure pottery while using a unique modern illustrative style which reminds me of artists like the Clark brothers (Invisible Creature). It’s dynamic and epic.

Everything is hand-drawn. Here’s a great process video:

Infiniteyay

Not strictly classical-aligned, but there’s certainly a traditional-inspired aesthetic at play. Her art is generally surreal while having the appearance of a detailed oil painting. A stark interplay between light and shadow while being collage-like. Most pieces I’ve seen have the vibe of “a dream about a carnival inside a dollhouse.”

https://twitter.com/infiniteyay

Charles AI

Charles is more overt than many other artists. His art often includes corinthian columns, togas, sweeping landscapes, and other hallmarks of classical Greek and Roman culture. His more surreal pieces tend to have a modern vibe which, to me, would fit alongside artists like Rene Magritte and Edward Hopper.

https://twitter.com/HODLFrance

Claire Silver

Her works, in particular the “AI Art Is Not Art” collection, are unquestionably inspired by traditional styles. Claire has mentioned Klimt, Sargent, Ziqian, De Morgan, Godward, Degas, Thayer, Waterhouse, Monet, and others. Some of what she does can be classified as dark post-impressionist; lots of neat examples though, including pieces which have the spirit of Art Nouveau.

A great story: “When my piece arrived at Sotheby's, I was told it sat for 2 days as they thought it belonged with the impressionist collection, not realizing it was part of the NFT auction. In a bit of synchronicity, it was trained on the aesthetic of several master artists featured in the sale.”

https://twitter.com/ClaireSilver12

Ren AI

Ren is a painter now exploring AI tools. His website says “I merge the old masters' style with modern aesthetics using instinctive brush strokes, layered lights and hidden meanings.”

https://twitter.com/RenAI_NFT

Maneki Neko AI

A self-described “Anti-minimalist artist,” her intricate works simultaneously evoke Art Nouveau and Hieronymus Bosch. I’m also reminded of old fairytale illustrations and Japanese artists like Yoshitaka Amano.

https://twitter.com/ManekiNekoAIArt

Diggium

Diggium has a wide variety of traditionally-inspired works which use concepts from Rococo, Surrealism, Vaporwave, and more.

https://twitter.com/diggium

Jeremy Booth

Jeremy Booth is another digital artist who doesn’t use AI. He does a lot of Western-themed vector illustrations.

https://twitter.com/jeremybooth

Closing thoughts

This isn’t what many people would expect upon hearing “NFT.”

There are many fantastic artists in the space and I can’t possibly name them all. I encourage everyone to look for themselves.

Although I often deride modern and contemporary art, there are absolutely living artists creating aesthetic works that everyone can appreciate.

I have stylistic preferences without being beholden to them. I’ve created works in nearly every style/genre/medium which exists. Not just visual arts, but in music too. Experimentation is important. What I look at is AESTHETIC above all else; the rest is incidental. If the aesthetic is good then I like it. Simple as.

There are also entertaining works like batzdu’s “Pepedenza” series.

Contemporary art OVERALL is certainly in a sad state of affairs.

There are too many examples to list…

Although it often doesn’t seem like it these days, it IS possible to respect the past and listen to objective standards of beauty. Innovation and progress don’t necessarily correlate with low quality.

Interesting art exists everywhere, in every time period. We simply have to find it and support it. The winds of change are here.

Beauty matters. I don’t make the rules.

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Let’s find out.

The Wonders of the Ancient World were constructed between 2700 BC and 280 BC. Most lists have, in order of age:

1. Great Pyramid of Giza

2. Hanging Gardens of Babylon

3. Temple of Artemis at Ephesus

4. Statue of Zeus at Olympia

5. Mausoleum at Halicarnassus

6. Colossus of Rhodes (Colossus of the Sun)

7. Pharos Lighthouse of Alexandria

Now, only the Giza pyramid remains. Fires or earthquakes destroyed most of the wonders.

The ancient Greek historian Diodorus Siculus wrote the first known reference to “seven wonders” in his tremendous 40-volume Bibliotheca historica (60-30 BC). This included the Babylonian Obelisk of Queen Semiramis which other lists don’t include. By most accounts, Semiramis was a mythological figure, not a historical one, based on multiple actual women like Queen Shammuramat. (This was common in old tales, since ancient peoples tended to blend legend and reality. For example, many Greeks claimed their family tree began with gods.) Siculus’ account may be a secondhand story shared with him, or he somehow misattributed an actual obelisk.

In either case, few people seemed to agree with Siculus about the glory of this alleged obelisk.

Since Siculus, many people have drawn up lists of seven (or more) “wonders.” The Greek geographer Strabo was among those who popularized the idea. Other Greeks included the poet Antipater of Sidon and Philo of Byzantium.

Antipater’s list matches our modern list, although he substitutes the Pharos Lighthouse for the Walls of Babylon.

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