Ancient era

As humans (and Denisovans) spread out from Africa, they entered South Asia between 75,000 and 30,000 years ago, possibly around the time of the hypothesized Toba eruption. Like all other cultures, art began with cave paintings [PDF] and rock carvings; including those at the Bhimbetka rock shelters, dating as far back as 8,000 BC.

Agriculture began around 7,000 BC. Early cultures included the Mehrgarh and Hakra Ware; they created baskets, simple tools, jewelry, terracotta figurines, pottery, and copper goods, with houses built from mud bricks.

Upon entering the Bronze Age, India’s main culture was that of the Indus Valley Civilization (Harappan culture) lasting about 3300-1300 BC. Unusually, they had less interest in art than other civilizations around the world, such as the Egyptians and Minoans. They didn’t create vast works like pyramids, palaces, or megaliths. Still, they had advanced cities for the time. This included wells, drainage systems, early sewers, warehouses, metallurgy, a system of weights and measures, and grid-based urban planning.

The Indus Valley peoples may have developed an early writing system, but as it remains undeciphered, we aren’t sure if it’s language or merely groups of symbols.

Their art remained relatively simple and small-scale, with some Mesopotamian parallels.

By 1300-1200 BC, the Indus Valley civilization had largely collapsed, with most of the population migrating to the east. It’s thought that drought, and perhaps a decline in trade with the Near East, contributed to this collapse. Indo-European migrations coincide with this time as another factor in cultural evolution.

Vedic era

Iron Age India, also known as the Vedic period, lasted approximately 1500-300 BC (exact time frame varies by region, source, and classification). This era isn’t well-known for its art, and anthropomorphic depictions don’t exist at all. The region was dominated by small competing kingdoms with their own ideas of how things should go. The Iron Age here is most important as the origin of Hinduism (the Vedas), Jainism, and the caste system.

We don’t know much about post-Indus Valley art. Archeology has uncovered very little, so South Asian cultures either dropped art as something important to them, or they moved to wood and textiles. Possibly both—the Indus Valley civilization already established a precedent for giving art a low importance in life. We can basically skip the entire early Iron Age, up to the Buddhist Era.

Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama) is thought to have lived around 566-400 BC; all written records of his life came long after his death, so getting to specifics is tricky. In any case, the founding of Buddhism soon had a massive impact on world history and art.

Indo-Aryan migrants began settling the island of Ceylon (later called Sri Lanka) in the 400s, although it could’ve had a strong human presence as early as 600 BC.

Art picked up with India’s first major empire, the Mauryan Empire (322-185 BC), which came directly after Alexander the Great introduced Greek and Persian ideas to the region in 326 BC. Hellenistic art and culture had the greatest impact on Northern India, while the Mauryan government was based partly on Persian systems. Significant stonework was taken up, including rock-cut architecture like Barabar Caves, although not much has survived to the present day.

The Mauryan Empire, in some ways, cemented an “Indian” style of depicting the world. You can see its influence on later works.

Also see: the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom and Indo-Greek Kingdom. 

After King Ashoka the Great converted to Buddhism around 260-250 BC, it spread widely across Asia, and Buddha statues eventually became commonplace. He promoted both art and science under what some consider a Golden Age. After Ashoka’s death though, the empire went into decline. It fell in 185 BC after the assassination of its last king. India then fragmented into regional dynasties like the Shunga (185-72 BC) and Satavahana (100 BC - 200 AD).

Nature spirits (Yakshas) became a popular theme in art around this time. Cult images included large statues, usually about seven feet tall. (Side note: an early decimal system was also developed, which spread to the Islamic world before later entering the West). 

Classical era

As we move from BC to AD, we enter India’s “Classical Age,” which is usually given as 250-500 AD. The era included various empires and dynasties:

• Gupta Empire (c. 320–650 CE) which is also the “Golden Age” of India

• Later Gupta dynasty (c. 490–750 CE)

• Vakataka Empire (c. 250–500 CE)

• Pallava Empire (c. 275–901 CE)

• Kadamba dynasty (c. 345–1347 CE)

• Western Ganga dynasty (c. 350–1024 CE)

• Vishnukundina Empire (c. 420–624 CE)

• Maitraka dynasty (c. 475–776 CE)

• Rai dynasty (c. 489–632 CE)

Sculpture picked up and early Hindu temples began construction. There may have been other art forms which were equally popular, but few to no examples have survived to the present day. India also remained fragmented for a long time, with different regional styles and preferences developing over time, so there isn’t any one style to point to.

The Gupta period is regarded as especially notable, including the Ajanta and Udayagiri caves. Both would’ve taken countless hours to carve from the earth, and may have taken decades.

The Gupta period is sometimes called “the Golden Age of classical Hinduism.”

Medieval and Modern era

India’s Medieval period began after this “classical age,” around 600 AD, and ended with the establishment of the Mughal Empire in 1526. That same year, Sikhism was founded by Guru Nanak (a Sikh Empire later existed from 1799-1839). But first:

The Chola Empire was established around 850 AD, leading to a Golden Age of Tamil culture with strides in literature and architecture. They conquered Sri Lanka in 1017-1019 AD and their empire’s influence was at its greatest extent soon after, extending as far as modern-day Malaysia.

Also see: the intricate art of the Chaulukya dynasty (940-1244 AD) of Western India.

Islamic forces took an interest in South Asia throughout most of India’s Medieval era. First as trade partners and in small communities, then intermittent military campaigns. Things picked up around 1000-1200 and regional sultanates were eventually established. The Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526) was one of the most influential of these. For example, construction of Qutb Minar, and the tallest minaret in the world. 

The earliest sultans had an uneasy rule—most of their power was concentrated in small areas, rebels struck back, and the next sultan was often decided by force. Almost half of the Delhi Sultanate’s rulers were assassinated and even slaves took the throne. India eventually returned to a state of several warring kingdoms, which created a window of opportunity for the Mughals. New technology—gunpowder and cannons—inflicted great losses on Indian forces, like in the 1527 Battle of Khanwa. 

Mughal art is best known for the world-famous Taj Mahal completed in 1654. Other accomplishments included switching to a new solar calendar (the Muslims had a lunar calendar) and the Red Fort at Delhi.

The Mughal Empire began declining around 1712, facing internal power struggles and competition from the rising Maratha Empire (among other issues). Colonial powers had also taken great interest in South Asia. The British East India Company in particular had a strong presence, and began taking control of Mughal areas in 1757-1773. This ended after the Indian Rebellion of 1857, although India remained under British rule until after World War II. Mahatma Ghandi was assassinated in 1948 and India became a republic in 1950.

Islam’s influence can still be seen in South Asian art and architecture. Culturally, it’s especially strong in modern-day Pakistan, which was split from British India in 1947.

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Let’s begin with the oldest:

China

The world’s oldest pottery (from what we’ve discovered so far in Xianren Cave) dates back to around 18,000 BC. Agriculture (the Neolithic Revolution) began around 7000-6000 BC, primarily centered around the Yangtze and Yellow rivers. Even though agriculture had been in Mesopotamia for thousands of years, it’s believed that Chinese civilization arose independently of them, and they figured out farming on their own.

Early cultures included those of the Peiligang (7000-5000 BC), Yangshao (5000-3000 BC), Liangzhu (3300-2300 BC), Majiayao (3300-2000 BC), and Longshan (3000-1900 BC).

China’s alleged first dynasty, the Xia dynasty (approx 2205-1600 BC), is credited with beginning the Chinese Bronze Age. This has overlap with the Erlitou period (1900-1500 BC) and inventing the wheel. Ancient bronze work is particularly notable for its high level of detail.

The Shang dynasty (1600-1045 BC) is the first dynasty with supporting archeological evidence for its existence. Based in the Yellow River valley, this was one of the first major civilizations of Asia. They worked with clay, bronze, jade, bone, and other materials for both artistic works and weapons of war. The earliest Chinese writing dates back to 1250 BC, shortly before the appearance of chariots (possibly from Indo-European cultures).

The Shang were followed by the Zhou dynasty (1046-256 BC), one of the longest-lasting. This time was notable for the “Mandate of Heaven,” a feudal system, increased bureaucracy and writing, Confucius, and Taoism. Crossbows were in use by 600-341 BC, such as in the Battle of Maling.

Men aimed for excellence in the “Four Arts” (qin, chess, calligraphy, painting) or “Six Arts” (math, calligraphy, literature, horsemanship, archery, music, and religious rites).

The legendary Warring States period (approximately 475-221 BC) led to the first unified Chinese empire. The Qin dynasty only lasted 15 years before giving way to The Eighteen Kingdoms and soon a Han dynasty, but you can do a lot in a short time. The Qin armies of terracotta warriors are among the world’s most famous works, created around 246-201 BC.

Buddhism reached China during the transition from BC to AD, radically altering world art and culture. Buddha statues have been found as far away as Greece.

Woodblock printing became common soon after, around 200 AD, and this is also when we see a clear “Chinese style” in painting. Most people can easily point out Chinese and Japanese art because of the distinctive colors, shapes, techniques, and methods of portraying people. It remained more or less consistent for thousands of years.

The Three Kingdoms era (220-280 AD) was one of China’s bloodiest, and impactful enough to influence culture up to the present day, including the long-running video game series Dynasty Warriors. The Romance of the Three Kingdoms by Luo Guanzhong (14th century) is an epic semi-historical story based on this period, still relevant, and one of China’s most famous literary classics. (For an English translation, most people seem to recommend the Moss Roberts translation.)

Also see: the 1592 book Journey To The West, more mythology-based and the origin for popular characters like the Monkey King.

The Three Kingdoms era was followed by turbulent times, including the Sixteen Kingdoms of Northern China. Art continued to evolve under successive dynasties: the Sui and Tang dynasties (581-960). Calligraphy-like landscape painting became popular.

The Song and Yuan dynasties (960-1368) largely covered the Medieval era. Like Medieval Europe, the Black Plague swept through and killed millions of people.

At this point, European and Chinese cross-cultural contact was significant, via the Silk Road. Marco Polo for example is well-known for his 1271-1295 travels and things only increased from there.

The famous Great Wall of China was built in small sections over centuries of activity. The wall as we know it today was largely constructed under the Ming dynasty (1368-1644). Urbanization and specialized industry increased under The Hongwu Emperor, and Neo-Confucianism became popular.

Fun fact: the Ming had one of the largest navies in the world at the time. The Chinese could’ve launched their own Age of Discovery and theoretically colonized the Americas before Europe. And yet—they burned over 3,000 vessels, deeming sea voyages “wasteful.”

The Qing dynasty was China’s final imperial dynasty, lasting from 1644 to 1912. Major events included the First Opium War (1840, Treaty of Nanking (1842), Taiping Rebellion (1851-1864), and other conflicts. The dynasty eventually fell and the Republic of China was established in January 1912.

Like in the West, there came a push toward modernization. Chinese artists didn’t exactly head toward Impressionism and Post-Impressionism like Europe, yet their art did change, inspired by both past and present.

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Japan

Japan was once linked to the Chinese mainland by a narrow strip of land. There’s some evidence that humans discovered this route by at least 30,000 BC, although they didn’t leave much behind. Mostly a few stone tools.

Between 14,500 and 10,700 BC, we see initial developments of pottery. When sea levels rose 10,000 years ago (also see: Younger Dryas) the Japanese archipelago was largely cut off from the rest of Asia. This naturally led to a clear split in cultural development compared to other regions.

The first major culture was that of the Jōmon hunter-gatherers. As they spread out, regional differences appeared, although they’re still considered a unified culture until 500-300 BC. Archery was in use by this Jōmon period, with unique longbows becoming the standard later (between 300 BC and 300 AD). After 500-300 BC, there was the Yayoi period. The early Japanese people began to use agriculture (from Korea) and developed a complex society.

Even at this early time, art was intricate.

The Kofun period (300-710 AD) was the final phase of Japanese prehistory, characterized by major changes like the introduction of Buddhism and Chinese writing. They later adapted Chinese script to form what would eventually become “Classical Japanese” (Medieval Japanese), a literary form which still exists today (albeit much diminished in use, especially after World War II). The Kofun period includes Asuka and Nara art. 

The megalithic Mozu Tombs (and Tomb of Emperor Nintoku) are one of their biggest achievements, somewhat like the North American mound-building cultures. The keyhole shape is rare and unique; I don’t know of any other culture who did this.

Japanese civilization rapidly evolved. Many of their distinctive styles have their origins in the time soon after Buddhism was introduced to the island chain. Woodblock printing was also introduced in the 700s.

In 794 AD, the budding country’s capital was moved to Heian-kyō (Kyoto) and the resulting “Heian period,” which was largely stable and peaceful, spanned 794-1185 AD.

Peace never lasts forever, though. War broke out at the end of the Heian period. The victors, the Minamoto clan, moved the seat of power to Kamakura, where it remained until 1333. This also shifted power to the warrior classes and away from the traditional nobles, which in turn influenced what artists created.

And warriors could be artists too:

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The Kamakura era ended when the Ashikaga clan took over and returned the capital to Kyoto. Since the Ashikaga headquarters ended up in the Muromachi district of the city, this era (1338-1573) is known as the Muromachi era of art, followed by the Azuchi-Momoyama period (1573-1603). Zen was one of the popular themes; but the Japanese also went big, for example Himeji Castle, the largest castle in the country (below).

The Sengoku period, or “Warring States” period, began in 1467 with the Ōnin War. Social unrest, including civil war, lasted for over a century. The end of the Sengoku is debated but can be dated to 1603, for ease of reading, when Tokugawa Ieyasu established his Shogunate and the resulting Edo period (1603-1867).

Ukiyo-e art and Kabuki theater emerged in this time.

Side note: my personal interest in this era began as a kid after randomly discovering the PS2 RTT Kessen many years ago.

Japan was exposed to Europeans after they began the Age of Discovery in the 1500s, initially from shipwrecked Spanish sailors. Jesuits began attempting to convert Japan in 1549 and “Bernardo the Japanese” is thought to have been the first Japanese person to set foot on European soil in 1553. One early ambassador was daimyō Hasekura Tsunenaga, who visited both Spain and the Americas between 1613 and 1620.

Western powers tried to move in on Japan without as much success as they wanted. In 1854, Commodore Matthew Perry’s visit led to the controversial Treaty of Kanagawa. This opened the country to more Western influence, rapid cultural changes, a new system of government, and significant conflict. This included the Boshin War (1868-1869) and Satsuma Rebellion (1877).

Japan’s final phase of independent culture ended with the upheaval of this Meiji era (1868-1912) where Western culture clashed with–and was integrated with–traditional Japanese ideas. This has been a popular topic in contemporary media such as Rurouni Kenshin and The Last Samurai.

Korea

Early Korean history is a bit less eventful than China and Japan, yet remains notable in its own ways.

Korean pottery began to be made around 7,000 BC, in relatively simple and primitive styles compared to the earliest Chinese and Japanese cultures. Their bronze age began around 2,000 BC, about a thousand years after it began in the Mediterranean, marked by megalithic dolmens.

The Korean peninsula had its own “Three Kingdoms” period, which began in 57 BC as the Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla kingdoms competed for control.

Buddhism was introduced around 372 AD. Like in China and Japan, it had a large influence on art and culture. Images of Buddha are frequent. The southernmost kingdom at the time, the Silla Kingdom, was the last to adopt Buddhism.

The Joseon dynasty (1392-1910) was Korea’s long-lasting “classical” era and encompassed the entire peninsula. Science, literature, art, culture, and technology flourished. Confucianism began to influence the arts alongside Buddhism. It was eventually the official state ideology and Buddhism was discouraged.

The Korean alphabet (Hangul) was invented in 1443, an easier-to-learn writing system aimed at improving literacy rates.

Korea became increasingly isolated after invasions from both Japan and China, becoming the first country referred to as a “hermit kingdom.”

The Joseon dynasty eventually crumbled. Its last king (and later Emperor) was forced to sign unfavorable treaties, namely the 1876 Treaty of Ganghwa and 1905 Japan-Korea treaty. Korea was plagued with pressure from foreign nations, famine, warfare, internal revolts, a failed coup d'état, assassinations, and more. It was too much for a kingdom to bear, and they were annexed by Japan in 1910.

Korea was ruled by the Japanese Empire until the end of World War II in 1945. After Japan’s surrender, Korea was divided into two occupation zones, one American and one Soviet. The Korean War of 1950 devastated the peninsula, with almost all major cities—and millions of people—destroyed. Thus today we have both North Korea and South Korea, which now have very significant cultural differences.

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Baroque is known as the first “global” art movement. It spread further than any previous movement, partly from European colonization and trading networks. It dominated the world with highly-decorated dramatic works of art, architecture, and sculpture. It’s often easy to classify Baroque works because of their correlation with “fear of empty space” and epic appearance.

• Important artists include: Peter Paul Reubens, Rembrandt van Rijn, Caravaggio, Artemesia Gentileschi, Diego Velázquez.

• Gian Lorenzo Bernini is credited as the “founder” of Baroque sculpture.

The Cultural Tutor argued that Baroque art was invented in the Reformation in direct opposition to Protestant minimalism and iconoclasm; the Catholic Church “started paying more attention to art as a religious and political force” and placed increasing emphasis on the persuasive nature of beauty. “The rise of Protestantism had made the Catholic Church more deeply aware of its own identity - and so they doubled down on it.” 

“Baroque architecture was rooted in the neoclassical style of the Renaissance - it used rounded arches, classical orders, pediments, and all the other trappings of Roman and Greek architecture. Only with a new dynamism, decadence, scale, and lavishness never before seen.”

Baroque composers included Johan Sebastian Bach, Georg Frideric Handel, Johann Pachelbel, and Antonio Vivaldi.

Rococo (Pompadour) is a type of late Baroque style which originated in Paris. It’s less bombastic and dynamic, instead emphasizing delicacy and light-hearted themes. Rococo artists rebelled against Baroque norms and introduced more softness, along with more pastel-like colors. Whereas Baroque art was content with themes like archangels and dragons, Rococo preferred picnics and love. However, they kept the idea of intricacy; Rococo art is very decorative and almost over-worked in its level of detail.

In the mid-1700s, Neoclassicism developed. The Age of Enlightenment and early archeology led to the movement. Excavations of Pompeii and Herculaneum brought a massive wave of interest to ancient art and literature. Neoclassical works are easy to spot. They’re all based on ancient Greco-Roman art and mythology.

Visually, it has similarities to prior movements, especially in the Renaissance, but is more restrained and minimalistic. Especially compared to the intricate Baroque and Rococo styles. Neoclassical work emphasizes simplicity and symmetry, focusing on what Europeans believed ancient Mediterranean civilization looked like (judging by their ruins).

“Classical” music dates to about 1750-1820; a transitional period between the Baroque and Romantic movements. Compositions became more complex and the harpsichord became less common as piano rose in popularity. Composers included Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven, and Franz Schubert.

Romanticism (approx 1780-1850) was more counter-cultural than prior movements. Some historians argue that this was the beginning of “modern art.” It was anti-Enlightenment, against the Industrial Revolution, soon after the American Revolution, and in favor of the French Revolution. They disliked the intricacy of Baroque and Rococo, along with the realism and symmetry of Neoclassicism.

Romantic- era artists emphasized emotion, atmospheric landscapes, and the power of nature. (Little to no work related to “romance” or love.) Some late works could potentially be classified as Early Impressionism due to their abstraction, JMW Turner as one example.

• Important artists include: Ivan Aivazovsky, Caspar Friedrich, Gericault, Eugène Delacroix, William Blake, Henry Fuseli, Goya

• A subcategory: the Hudson River School

Romantic composers included Frédéric Chopin, Felix Mendelssohn, Gioachino Rossini, and Carl Maria von Weber.

Personally, Neoclassicism and Romanticism are my favorite periods.

Beaux-Arts was a French combination of Neoclassicism, Baroque, and Renaissance styles. Primarily applied to architecture, it was an academic style taught in art schools. Students underwent considerable training and they influenced architecture around the world. The goal here was to combine the best parts of each style with modern techniques and materials.

Victorian art dealt with a variety of themes, notably including Shakespeare and fairy tales. Stylistically, their paintings varied, so “Victorian” is more about what the art showed rather than how. Many artists of the time used Renaissance and Neoclassical techniques to show heroic or mythological scenes.

Realists (including the Ashcan and Barbizon schools) diverged from their contemporaries in Neoclassical, Romantic, and Victorian art. They focused on painting mundane subjects. Daily life in city neighborhoods, farmers, etc. They shunned epic mythological tales in favor of simple truths about life. They were willing to push boundaries of accepted art and discuss social issues. “Mundane” art had existed before, but intermittently, and the Realists pushed it into a cohesive movement of its own.

Around this time, the Impressionist movement popped up. Color and light took the stage over lines and detail. Sometimes considered an extreme form of Romanticism, these paintings had a sketch-like quality with their loose brushstrokes.

Post-Impressionism was a natural extension which included further abstraction and distortions. It diverged from reality with overly expressive effects and strange colors. Pointillism (using dots instead of brushstrokes) was one technique.

Most artists and critics hated impressionism and post-impressionism. At the time most of these works were deemed messy, low-skilled, and degenerate. Remember that this was being done at the same time as Victorian art. There’s a huge visual difference between Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema and Van Gogh.

• Important artists include:  Vincent van Gogh, Paul Cézanne, Paul Gauguin, Georges Seurat

Symbolism was another reaction against realistic and naturalistic art. In paintings, poems, and literature, artists wanted to use metaphor and allusion instead of showing things literally. They were influenced by dreams, mysticism, and the works of people like Edgar Allan Poe. Visually, there was a lot of stylistic variation like in Victorian art. This was a precursor for Surrealism.

Art Nouveau (approximately 1890-1915) was a nature-inspired movement which primarily dealt with architecture and decorative arts (interior decorating). Posters were also popular. It emphasized curves and plant-like visuals, and is most similar to Rococo, although it often included neoclassical and medieval elements. Tiffany stained glass has many examples.

• Important artists include:  Alphonse Mucha, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Gustav Klimt, Aubrey Beardsley

Lastly, we have to mention photography. Part of the reason for art becoming more abstract is that photos muscled into the “realistic art” niche. Painting a beautiful landscape had less perceived value when taking a picture was faster and less expensive. Artists thus began expressing themselves in different ways.

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Modern Art & Contemporary Art

Opinions differ on when “modern art” begins. I personally put it around 1900, alongside the short-lived burst of Fauvism and decline of Impressionism. Artists by this point turned from depictions of externalities (the divine, nature, etc.) in favor of emotions, abstractions, and internal thoughts. “Anything” can become “art.”

Early modern art includes movements such as Expressionism, Cubism, Futurism, Suprematism, Constructivism, De Stijl, Precisionism, and Harlem Renaissance.

After The Great War (WW1) things took a slightly darker turn in art and sculpture. The ramifications of the war was one influence for artists further questioning the point of art. We get Dada, Surrealism, and Modernist Architecture.

One of the highlights of post-war art is Art Deco (1920 – 1935).

Bauhaus and other abstract movements are the foundation of contemporary nonsense like Corporate Memphis. Emphasis on “function” and simplified forms, along with mass production, ushered in the new age of Globalism—where cultural identity is tossed aside in favor of a homogeneous “international” style. Beauty and form are stripped away, leaving us with an “Ikeafication” and “Debranding” of everything.

WW2 exacerbated this with 50s/60s styles like Pop Art, Brutalism, and Minimalism. Andy Warhol and Roy Liechtenstein are among the biggest personalities of the time.

The “break point” for the next art era came from hippies, feminists, and other outcasts. The 1960s included movements like psychedelic art, graffiti, “junk” art, and performance art.

“Contemporary art” is a broad, easy-to-classify term. It’s anything made after 1970. This includes Postmodernism, Deconstructivism, Installation Art, and meme culture. Anything goes. Some people argue that art is solely an intellectual exercise now, not an aesthetic display, with ideas taking center stage.

One newer term is “Artivism”—described as “political action presented through (or as) art.” It’s a reactionary movement, generally railing against traditional values and espousing social justice activism. It’s more about politics, trying to bully people into believing what you want them to believe, rather than art.

The art world continues to evolve in unexpected ways, including nostalgia-based movements like Vaporwave and counter-countermovements like Neo-Traditionalism. Classical sculpture has survived in artists like Frederick Elliott Hart and Roger Morigi. 

As for where we’ll go next, no one knows.

The big thing these days is NFT art and Artificial Intelligence art.

Side note: because this article is a brief introduction, we haven’t covered literally everything here. Stay tuned for more. This is the 101 level to contextualize things and introduce a generalized exposure to each style/topic.

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Here’s the full art history series at this time:

• Timeline of Western Art, from Prehistoric to Ancient: Art History 101

• Art in Ancient Greece: Art History 101

• The Mediterranean Iron Age: Art History 101

• Introduction to Western Medieval Art: Art History 101

• Introduction to the European Renaissance: Art History 101

• Timeline of Early American Art: Art History 101

• The Seven Wonders of the World: Art History 102

This is a reader-supported publication. For further support of my work:

• I sell physical artwork and journals at ApolloGallery.org with more to come

• I have a masterlist of 100+ AI-related tools for increasing efficiency

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• And if you don’t already know, I’m on both Twitter and Instagram

Feudalism weakened and would collapse entirely in the coming centuries. More than half of the European population died in the 1300s. Such an extreme death toll weakened ties between classes and created power vacuums. Social, spiritual, and political instability led to shortages of laborers, soldiers, and more. Which in turn led to lords offering the lower classes better working conditions, more pay, and even freedom. The evolution of firearms also made knights obsolete when even the sickliest peasant could be a significant force on the battlefield.

The Renaissance began as an extension of Medieval Europe, with greater wealth and shifts of power leading to a notably complex and rich period of Western history.

Although Rome gets a lot of attention, it took a long time for the city to recover after the fall of the Roman Empire. The “birthplace” of the Italian Renaissance was Florence, which became a wealthy center of trade and banking in the Medieval era. Rome’s recovery didn’t begin until the time of Pope Martin V (1417-1431).

Some people seem to believe the Renaissance was purely about Italian art and architecture. True, many of the greatest works were by Italian artists, yet other areas of the world had their own cultural evolutions. The Netherlands and Germany as two examples. Some cultures preferred non-visual arts like literature and music, as in the later English Renaissance (associated with Queen Elizabeth I, 1558-1603).

The Renaissance was a continent-wide phenomenon when artists turned from craftsmen into public figures. In prior eras, artists rarely got credit for what they did, and there was little room for personal expression. Art served a specific purpose, usually devoted to higher powers or as a specific commission. Although this continued during the Renaissance, the trend began to weaken. Some patrons gave a new level of agency to the artists they commissioned. Artists like Michaelangelo were household names, celebrities in their own right, and people clamored to work with them.

Early and High Renaissance (1300–1550)

Artistically, the Renaissance began by blending Gothic and Classic styles and taking things in a new direction. Many artists were inspired by ancient Greek and Roman works as a renewed interest in the Mediterranean’s legacy gushed forth.

Artists revisited concepts like depth, perspective, chiaroscuro, and foreshortening, which lasted only briefly in ancient art. Most art throughout history didn’t bother with trying to portray an accurate illusion of three-dimensional space. (Egyptian works for instance.)

The most famous artists are the ones who later inspired the Ninja Turtles’ names:

• Donatello aka Donato di Niccolò di Betto Bardi (1386-1466)

• Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci (1452-1519)

• Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni (1475-1564)

• Raphael aka Raffaello Sanzio (1483-1520)

Other notable works include:

Venetian and Northern Renaissance (1430–1550)

Giovanni Bellini, known for works like the San Zaccaria Altarpiece, was called “the greatest Venetian painter of his time.”

Europeans developed woodcut art in 1300-1400. This began as simple textile patterns and religious images. The Forlì “Madonna of the Fire” is an early example, printed sometime before 1428. Engraving also took off as an option for creating prints. Well-known artists include Martin Schongauer (1450-1491), Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528), and Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-1669) who elevated this into true art.

Etching is thought to have begun with Daniel Hopfer (1470-1536) around 1500, shortly before Dürer. Printmaking quickly became elaborate and popular. Not just as a way to quickly produce copies of great works, but also create original works. This also made art affordable even for common people. The less affordable type of copy was textiles; some famous works were turned into tapestries.

Hieronymus Bosch (Jerome van Aken) is best known for his bizarre and surreal Garden of Earthly Delights (1490-1510). Entire books can be written about this piece alone for its level of detail and symbolism.

Jan van Eyck (1380-1441) was well-known for his use of oil paintings, to the extent that some people at the time claimed he invented oil paints. He didn’t (it was understood by at least 1110-1125) but most pre-Renaissance paintings used a less flexible egg tempera paint. Oil paints were a significant invention that allowed artists to reach new heights. Most people now know van Eyck for his intricate symbolism-laden Arnolfini Portrait—although it appears to be a simple portrait of a couple, it has a lot of interesting details.

Early landscape painters included Joachim Patinir (1515-1524) and Pieter Brugel the Elder (especially works like his 1565 Hunters in the Snow and the Harvesters). Backgrounds were somewhat of an afterthought compared to the main subject of a painting, so it was unusual to see them as the focus.

Mannerism and Late Renaissance (1527–1580)

Important names included: Tintoretto, El Greco, Pontormo, Bronzino, Sofonisba Anguissola, Lavinia Fontana.

Niccolò Machiavelli published The Prince in 1532.

Construction on St. Peter’s Basilica began in 1506 and took over a century to complete. When fully unveiled, it was the largest church in the world–and still is, by interior measurements.

The Renaissance wasn’t just about high arts, either. It made its way into plates, tables, ceramics (maiolica), and other normally-mundane items.

Giorgio Vasari, one of Italy’s most famous artists, is credited as one of the founders of art history and the first to refer to the Renaissance as a “rebirth.” His tremendous multi-volume work Le Vite de' più eccellenti pittori, scultori, e architettori (Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects) was first published in 1550. It had dozens of biographies and hundreds of pages of information about the Italian Renaissance. Many later biographies and encyclopedias used this as a reference.

Closing thoughts

This “brief introduction” is getting too long, so we’ll end for now, and return with further discussion another time.

A lot happened during the Renaissance: political intrigue, papal drama, assassinations, war, and the rise of families like the famous Medici lineage and the Borgias. Advances in the sciences included those by Nicolaus Copernicus, Galileo Galilei, Francis Bacon, Tycho Brahe, and Johannes Kepler. Christopher Columbus’ first voyage to America in 1492 created yet another shake-up.

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The Gallery of Apollo

The Mediterranean Iron Age: Art History 101

Last time we checked out the evolution of ancient Greek art as we know it today. The Mediterranean’s post-Alexander major power was that of the Romans. The Roman Kingdom and Etruscan Art The Etruscans (also known as Villanovans in their early stages) were Italy’s first Iron Age civilization, developing ironworking by 900 BC…

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3 years ago · 5 likes · BowTiedApollo

Medieval art covers the thousand-year period between the Roman Empire’s collapse and the Renaissance. This is also why we call it “the Middle Ages;” because Renaissance-era Europe believed their era—and the Greco-Roman era—was the height of human accomplishment. They largely disregarded the “barbaric” era in the middle of these. This stereotype persists even to the present day, even though the human race has always done great things.

We can divide the Middle Ages into three categories:

• Early Middle Ages (400-1000)

  • Merovingian, Carolingian, and Ottonian art

• High Middle Ages (1000-1300)

  • Romanesque and Gothic art

• Late Middle Ages (1300-1500)

  • International Gothic

And throughout all of these periods, more or less, Byzantine and Islamic art flourished.

Medieval art was generally religious. This included illuminated manuscripts, stained glass windows, reliquaries, and altarpieces. They used more rare materials like gold and gemstones. While the ancient Greeks and Romans made strides in secular works, the Middle Ages is characterized more by the expansion of Christianity and Islam. Christianity had gained significant ground just before the Roman Empire’s collapse, even becoming the state religion. Islam was founded around 600 AD and soon became its main competitor.

Architecture and other art forms became increasingly complex and elegant over the centuries. This was a time of great upheaval. Increased trade and awareness of other cultures, empires rising and falling, and more. The Catholic Church was one of the few stable institutions and this influence is easily seen in Medieval art. Churches and monasteries also served as centers of power and wealth. Some people used them as banks and stored family heirlooms there. Secular or pagan art was less likely to be created and less likely to survive the ages.

Early Middle Ages (400-1000)

After the fall of Rome, one of the first major powers to emerge was the Merovingian dynasty, covering most of West/Central Europe. The name comes from King Merovech, said to be the ruler of a barbarian tribe who allied with the late Roman Empire.

The Carolingian Empire (800-888) came next, named after Charlemagne, the founder of the cultural institution known as the Holy Roman Empire (800-1806). Charlemagne felt an affinity with the Roman Empire—and as he acquired wealth and power, he wanted to match their artistic output.

Fun fact: every living person of European descent is allegedly related to Emperor Charlemagne. His family was… prolific. Direct descendants include Sir Christopher Lee, who went on to record metal albums about Charlemagne.

Feudalism developed in the late 800s/early 900s as invasions and raids intensified. Centralized powers weakened and looked to decentralize in response. Vassals would receive land, and in return, owed their lord military service and/or taxes to fund his war chest. The entire system was based on reciprocity. Symbiotic relations between lower and upper classes. Power began to be delegated throughout kingdoms since a single central authority could no longer muster an adequate defense. Especially when attacked on all sides—where do you put your slow-moving troops?

The Vikings flourished during this time, with “the Viking Age” between approximately 800 and 1100 AD.

Part of Viking success was speed. Longships could navigate rivers and coasts 5-10 times faster than a land-based army. They'd appear out of nowhere, overwhelm local defenses, and vanish long before reinforcements could arrive. Paris was famously besieged at least four times in the 800s.

Vikings were large and skilled (higher-protein diet and training since childhood) and had less gear than opponents (only 30-40 lbs of weapons and armor) for greater strength and agility. Plus they often went for easy targets like monasteries.

(Side note: I’ll cover Viking art and culture separately since they deserve their own article. TBD.)

Such assaults were deeply traumatic for Europe. They didn’t influence art much, yet they did influence architecture and culture.

After the fall of the Carolingians, the earliest castles began to be built. Regional instability and foreign invasion necessitated fortresses which could be used for both offense and defense. These were originally primitive designs of wood and earth located in naturally defensible positions. It wasn’t until later that stone and other more durable materials were used for our modern castle stereotype.

An earthwork fortress needed dozens of people, but stone castles needed thousands. Many of these old fortresses were rebuilt multiple times, and continually expanded, to reach their present state. Prague Castle is one of the first (880) and is the largest castle in the world. Other early castles include William the Conqueror’s Warwick Castle (1068) and Windsor Castle (1070). Early architects included James of Saint George.

Ottonian art is named after Emperor Otto the Great (962-972) who became successor to the Holy Roman Empire after a period of turmoil. Under Otto, there was significant interest in art from the Carolingians, Byzantines, and Italians. Major Ottonian works included the Gero Crucifix (965-970) and The Codex Egberti (977-993).

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High Middle Ages (1000-1300)

“Romanesque” art stems from, as one might expect, the Roman Empire’s influence (including Byzantine art), while incorporating local Frankish and Germanic styles. It began gaining popularity around 1000 AD and is found in many regions of Europe. Sculpture made a strong comeback, including relief carvings. Architecture was thicc and stylized.

The Crusades opened a window back to the Near East, starting with the First Crusade of 1096-1099. European artists and craftsmen acquired influences from Byzantine and Islamic art.

The Anglo-Saxon Bayeux Tapestry is one of the most famous works from the 11th century. The distinctive embroidered cloth measures an astounding 230 feet long (70 meters) and tells an epic story. Here’s one small section:

Gothic architecture and sculpture emerged around 1144-1155 AD in France. It had no connection to the barbarian group known as the Goths, and wasn’t called “gothic” at the time—that came hundreds of years later. It emphasized thinner and more elegant forms in architecture, almost weightless in comparison to older styles.

Originally known as Opus Francigenum (“French work”), new architectural techniques like the flying buttress allowed buildings to reach great heights, pointing towards Heaven itself. Walls became less important as a structural feature, since stress was spread over more concentrated areas. Artists experimented with getting more light inside (especially important in Northern Europe, not so much the Mediterranean) and stained glass was one solution.

The windows of Augsburg Cathedral in Germany (1065) are among the earliest stained glass pieces. Chartres Cathedral (1194-1250) is among the most magnificent and originally had 176 stained glass windows. The stories told by stained glass windows were especially important as visual aids in a time when most people were illiterate.

Early works included the choir at the Abbey of Saint-Denis, and the Royal Portal at Chartres Cathedral. Other well-known examples include the Psalter of St. Louis (1260-1270) and Melchior Broederlam’s altarpiece for Philip the Bold (1394-1399).

The oldest European universities were founded around this time. This included the University of Bologna (1088-1190), University of Oxford (1167-1214), and University of Salamanca (1218-1219). Curriculum focused on both arts and sciences, and was a big step toward the furthering of Western Civilization as a whole.

Nicola Pisano was one artist who looked back to ancient Greece and Rome, and sought to incorporate those traditions in contemporary Christian-themed work, especially after ~1245 when he moved to Pisa. His son continued his work, as did other sculptors.

Widespread catastrophe began to set in at this point.

The Mongols reached Europe in 1240-1241, over a decade after the death of Genghis Khan (Temüjin) in 1227. Their invasion lasted for a year until Mongolian forces retreated. Several possible factors went into the decision to withdraw, including the death of Ögedei Khan. After a few sparse raids, they returned in force, attacking Lithuania and Poland in 1259. Attacks continued until about 1300. European powers launched counter-invasions as the Mongol Empire weakened. By 1368 they no longer had a significant presence in Europe, and by some accounts, that year marked the end of their empire.

Late Middle Ages (1300-1500)

Even more disasters struck Europe after the Mongols. Famine, plague, changes in climate, and social unrest.

These problems included:

• The Little Ice Age (~1300)

• The Great Famine of 1315-1317

• The Byzantine Civil War (1341-1347)

• The Black Death (1346-1353) plus many recurrences between 1360 and 1667

• The Hundred Years' War (1337-1453)

• The Great Schism (1378-1417)

• The Fall of the Byzantine Empire (1453)

• The War of the Roses (1455-1487)

Within a couple of generations, the European population was sliced in half. (Estimates vary widely.) As one would expect, this caused radical cultural shifts.

Military power and technology shifted too. Knights fell out of favor as longbows became common and the cannon was introduced in the 1300s. The first firearm with a trigger was invented in 1475. Between the 1500s and 1600s, armies introduced guns en masse. Cavalry replaced their lances with these new tools, and the first bayonet was invented in the Ottoman Empire.

The Silk Road kept connections alive between Europe and the Far East, as did stories about the travels of Marco Polo (1271-1295). This included the time when the Mongols controlled it. The Road was closed when the Byzantine Empire fell in 1453. This had a major influence on the Age of Discovery, as European merchants searched for ways to reconnect. They turned from land to sea.

Increased European wealth and artistic skill is most evident in the grandest castles and churches of Medieval architecture.

The Lincoln Cathedral, completed in 1311, was the tallest building in the world until 1884. The Florence Cathedral, completed in 1436, has the largest brick dome in the world. Winchester Cathedral, when completed in 1532, was the longest cathedral in the world until St. Peter’s Basilica was built in Italy.

International Gothic (1375-1425) was one of the last art styles before the Renaissance came about in full force. It spread mostly among royals in Western Europe and is known for vibrant colors, flowing lines, slender bodies, and floral themes. Early works included Annunciation (1333) by Simone Martini and the Wilton Diptych (1395-1397) by an anonymous artist. A later example is the The Adoration of the Magi altarpiece in the Strozzi chapel.

Let’s not forget the Holy Roman Empire either:

And, lastly, one of the world’s most important inventions: Johannes Gutenberg’s printing press went into operation in the mid-1400s. In less than a century, printing presses churned out over 20 million books, sparking a revolution in literacy and education. Fully mechanical clocks were another important invention.

For more about “the rise of the West,” here’s another Substack with good information:

Patterns in Humanity

The Rise of the West

I track the historical rise of West Europe by quantitatively analyzing the birth of notable people of science, and then I put it in context with other indicators of historical development. The data together show that West Europe had developmentally surpassed the rest of the world prior to 1500 A.D., before the establishment of overseas colonies or slave…

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3 years ago · 16 likes · 5 comments · Inquisitive Bird

Byzantine Art

The Byzantine Empire’s art is notably different from the rest of Europe due to its Hellenic and Near East influences. Mosaics are especially well-known, as is their use of gold and silver in many pieces. Byzantine artwork began to have greater effect on European art after Constantinople was retaken in 1204, and cultural exchange could take place uninterrupted.

Side note: there’s an argument that the Byzantine Empire began in 330 AD when Constantinople became the Roman Empire’s new capital. Others put 395-476 AD as the start date since that’s when the unified Roman Empire came to an end.

The Early Byzantine era included the Justinian Dynasty (518-602) and a Dark Age that lasted for about 200 years. Also see: the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628.

Although their power was much diminished after Justinian, there was a comeback. The “Middle” Byzantine era ran from about 717 to 1204. This included the Macedonian Renaissance (867-1056) followed by a series of civil wars.

The Crown of Saint Stephen (1070) is of Byzantine design and made for the first king of Hungary.

After the end of the Komnenian Dynasty (1081-1185) we come to the decline and fall of the Byzantine Empire (1204-1453).

The Ottoman Empire took Constantinople in 1453 and it hasn’t been part of Europe since.

Medieval Near East and Africa

The Near East was quickly dominated by Islamic modes of thought as Muslim armies created an empire.

Early Islamic art didn’t have specific rules and generally stuck with local traditions. Although not strictly forbidden by the Qur’an, artists were discouraged from creating figurative art. To “breathe life” is allegedly meant to be a power God alone should hold, and may distract from spiritual focus. This is also where imagery of God and Muhammad became banned, as we know today.

Because of these restrictions, Islamic art brought a focus on non-figurative art: calligraphy, geometry, plant-inspired designs, and repeating patterns. Geometry was based on mathematics from ancient cultures like that of Babylon and Greece. Greek artists, as we’ve seen, believed there were aesthetic principles in math.

The “golden age” of Islamic art began to end in the 15th century, although artistic concepts were passed between the Islamic world and European world. And less desirable things too. Like Medieval Europe, the Black Death terrorized the Islamic world, although for much longer. Plague wasn’t considered gone until as late as 1850.

Notable areas within Medieval Sub-Saharan Africa include Great Zimbabwe and the Kingdom of Mapungubwe, both of which collapsed by 1500. Their mortarless stone constructions are still visible today, as ruins, across modern-day Mozambique and Zimbabwe.

Next: The Renaissance and Early Globalism

The Medieval era was vast and complex, encompassing multiple cultures and regions. Although this is just a brief overview (as brief as 2300 words can be) I plan to go more in-depth in the future on other details.

Europe is responsible for creating or influencing nearly all art forms after the Medieval era. Once Europe began to colonize the globe, they left their marks on basically every culture. In some cases, they destroyed the works of the conquered people. Disentangling indigenous art from European art is a fairly recent invention.

Historians typically say “the Modern Age” begins in 1500 AD, although it begins later in the art world (there are various debates over when exactly, and I’d say 1900). But more on that next time.

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• I sell physical artwork and journals at ApolloGallery.org with more to come

• I have a masterlist of 100+ AI-related tools for increasing efficiency

• You can hire me for graphic design work

• And if you don’t already know, I’m on both Twitter and Instagram

Pottery and music are typically the first advanced arts to develop in a culture, followed by other creative endeavors like poetry and textile work. Painting is often dead last. Even though painting was among humanity’s first inventions it wasn’t considered a true standalone art until the time of the ancient Greeks and Romans. Before that, it often played a complementary role, such as wall frescos or sculptural accents. It wasn’t until the Italian Renaissance that painting entered the realm of the masters.

Mesopotamia

The first examples of proto-writing date to around 7000-4000 BC, well after the Neolithic Revolution. The earliest settlements included Çatalhöyük and Uruk. The first coherent writing systems (cuneiform and hieroglyphics) emerged around 3500-3000 BC.

Sargon of Akkad's daughter Enheduanna, Sumerian high priestess of the moon god Nanna (Suen) and goddess Inanna (Ishtar), may have been the first female poet and even the first named author in history. A disc excavated in 1927 included her name and dates to around 2300 BC. She was a priestess for at least 40 years until her death around 2250 BC.

At least two works are attributed to her, “The Exaltation of Inanna” and “Hymn to Inanna,” and she may have authored or edited up to 45-50 poems total. It’s not clear whether Enheduanna actually wrote or composed everything herself (it’s impossible to prove) but her name does appear, which was unusual in ancient history–especially for a woman. The Epic of Gilgamesh and Atra-Hasis, for example, as history’s first written epic poems (2100-1700 BC), were authored anonymously.

One theory speculated that Enheduanna’s name was added later; the original works, if they existed, have not survived–what we have are Babylonian copies from 1800 BC onwards (also see: The Decad), and the Babylonians might’ve wanted to give extra legitimacy to such works by associating them with Sargon of Akkad’s influential dynasty. Sargon had been dead for centuries (since ~2279 BC) by the time of the Babylonian Empire.

Also in Mesopotamia, we have the names of many musicians (like Haddamilku, Ur-Utu, Rišiya, and Warad-Ilišu) although most details of their contributions remain unknown. Music was of great importance and many types of instruments were invented. Some were thought of as gods or aspects of gods. Cities had schools of music, royal musicians, and some of the world’s oldest foundations for music theory. Musical notation existed from at least 1400-1250 BC.

King Shulgi of Ur (r. 2094-2046 BC) claimed to be an expert with several instruments and wrote various poems. He boasted of many accomplishments, most of which are probably untrue, and declared himself a god at one point. He did accomplish things of importance though, such as completing the Great Ziggurat of Ur (begun by his father) and promoting the oldest surviving law code (Code of Ur-Nammu, also begun or completed by his father).

The well-known Code of Hammurabi came soon after. While not physically written by the king himself (likely dictated or outlined by Hammurabi to royal scribes), it was another cultural landmark.

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Outside of Mesopotamia

The Egyptian Middle Kingdom (2040-1782 BC) was a time when art and literature expanded, referred to by later ancient Egyptians as “classics,” but authorship continued to be primarily anonymous. Exceptions included The Satire of the Trades, attributed to the scribe Kheti of Sile. The Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor, while the author is unknown, has the signature of the scribe (Amenaa) and is the world’s oldest signature on papyrus.

Amenhotep (1425-1356 BC) was one of Egypt’s most important scribes. Also a priest and architect, he was sometimes referred to as a philosopher (although we have none of his works) and deified after his death. Amenemope, an Egyptian scribe, is the likely author of the Instruction of Amenemope, written between 1300-1075 BC at the earliest.

Egyptian Pharaohs requested artists and sculptors from foreign kings during the Bronze Age (Minoan, etc) but generally didn’t name specific people. Diplomatic messages were more akin to “please send me your best column guy because I have a cool project for him.”

The Duke of Zhou (r. 1042-1035 BC) is credited with writing the Chinese I Ching and the Book of Poetry.

The “Golden Age of Chinese philosophy” (including the rise of Confucianism and Taoism) dates to the “Hundred Schools of Thought” of 600-221 BC.

Early Sanskrit literature included the Mahabharata (400 BC - 400 AD) and Purāṇas attributed to Krishna Dvaipayana, as well as the Rāmāyana (800-300 BC) attributed to the sage Vālmīki. Most early Indian works, like other early works, were oral.

Greece

The Greek poet Homer, probably living around 900-700 BC, is credited with telling the story of The Iliad and The Odyssey. The Athenian politician Pisistratus (600-527 BC) is said to be first to collect and organize Homer’s oral poetry. Other famous works from this time include the Works and Days and Theogony from Hesiod, who was thought to be active between 750 and 650 BC.

Art was elevated to a new prominence after the end of the Greek Dark Ages in 776 BC. We know of countless artists, including the Nine Lyric Poets:

• Alcman of Sparta (7th century BC)

• Stesichorus of Metauros (7th century BC)

• Sappho of Lesbos (630-570 BC)

• Alcaeus of Mytilene (~600 BC)

• Anacreon of Teos (6th century BC)

• Ibycus of Rhegium (6th century BC)

• Simonides of Ceos (6th century BC)

• Bacchylides of Ceos (5th century BC)

• Pindar of Thebes (5th century BC)

Later Greek artists and authors included Sophocles, Aeschylus, Euripides, Parrhasius, Zeuxis, Phidias, Polykleitos, Myron, and Herodotus.

The Gallery of Apollo

Art in Ancient Greece: Art History 101

We left off in Europe last time with the Bronze Age Collapse of 1200 BC: Since written records are few from the resulting Mediterranean dark ages, we don’t know much about what happened. A lot of early art and architecture also used wood, which decayed over time and little evidence remains…

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3 years ago · 4 likes · BowTiedApollo

Greece is credited as the primary foundation of Western Civilization for many reasons, and its multi-century explosion of artistic accomplishment is a major contributing factor.

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This is a reader-supported publication. For further support of my work:

• I sell physical artwork and journals at ApolloGallery.org with more to come

• I have a masterlist of 100+ AI-related tools for increasing efficiency

• You can hire me for graphic design work

• And if you don’t already know, I’m on both Twitter and Instagram

The Roman Kingdom and Etruscan Art

The Etruscans (also known as Villanovans in their early stages) were Italy’s first Iron Age civilization, developing ironworking by 900 BC.

The Italian peninsula was home to several cultures in its early years:

There are several myths about the origins of the Roman people. In one legend, in the wake of the Trojan War, the hero Aeneas grouped up with other survivors and looked to begin a new nation. Their descendants included the twins Romulus and Remus, who were ordered to die so they wouldn’t threaten a local king’s rule. The twins were raised by a she-wolf until a shepherd adopted them. They eventually became leaders, overthrew the king, and set out to create their own city, deciding upon a region with seven hills. Arguments ensued over which hill to use and Remus was slain in this conflict. Romulus served as Rome’s first king from 753 to 716 BC, soon after the Greek Dark Ages of 1200-776 BC.

753 BC could be accurate, since there’s archeological evidence of Roman settlement and expansion from that time. We also see a transition from the Romans being inspired primarily by Etruscan art to more influence from the Greeks.

Etruscans passed many important ideas to the Romans. This included temples, sarcophagi, burial urns, death masks, togas, chariot racing, arches, and vaults. Some ideas, like their alphabet, stemmed from Greek contact. 

Wood, bronze, and terracotta were common building materials, as only Classical Greece could afford widespread use of marble at the time. Influence from Egyptian and Greek culture is visible in Etruscan works, as most Mediterranean cultures were connected.

With the founding of Rome, a Roman Kingdom developed, and warfare soon spread across the peninsula.

Romans held Greek art in high esteem, especially after 212 BC. Roman artists often made copies or derivative works of Greek sculptures. Fortunately, this gave us a better picture of Greek art, since many original works didn’t survive the ravages of time. We have to rely on Roman versions and written records to prove their existence. And even before the Romans conquered the Greeks, the wealthy commissioned Greek works, to decorate country villas and more.

Both Etruscan and Greek artists were highly skilled, and the collision of both cultures led to the Romans having some of the world’s greatest works of the era.

As the art world evolved, the Romans developed their own style and national identity, as well as landmark inventions like concrete and domes. 

The Roman Republic and Roman Empire

The Roman Kingdom became the Roman Republic in 509 BC after the overthrow of their short-lived monarchy.

480-300 BC is considered the peak of Etruscan art; their “classical” period. Their culture was soon absorbed by the Romans and became less important compared to Hellenistic/Greek art. By 200-100 BC, most of Rome’s sculptors were allegedly Greek, sometimes held as slaves.

The main difference between “Roman” and classical Greek sculpture is that the Romans were more interested in realism, as opposed to the idealism displayed in Greece. Faces take on more signs of age and wear, while bodies are less muscular and youthful.

The Romans soon became the Mediterranean’s prime power. They controlled nearly all of Italy by the start of the Punic Wars in 264 BC. The Roman world expanded from there, including the Achaean War (146 BC) which gave them control over Greece.

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The Roman Empire

By most accounts, we can set the founding of the empire to 27 BC, when Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus was declared princeps and Augustus. Rome was the largest and richest city in the Mediterranean around this time. This led to the so-called Pax Romana, viewed as Rome’s Golden Age (27 BC to 180 AD).

Emperor Augustus was one of history’s biggest art patrons, promoting everything from literature to monuments. He was quoted "I found a Rome of bricks; I leave to you one of marble." He, and other emperors, understood the value of political and religious symbolism.

De Architectura (30-20 BC) is one of the most important early resources on architecture. It compiled Greco-Roman knowledge on city planning, aqueducts, water mills, central heating, and more.

The Colosseum opened in 80 AD, a year after Mount Vesuvius buried Pompeii in ash.

Trajan's Column was completed in 113 AD.

The Arch of Septimius Severus dates back to 203 AD.

One Roman contribution to art was the idea of the equestrian statue. It wasn’t uniquely a Roman invention, but they were greater fans than most other cultures. Sculptors created at least 22 commemorative statues of war heroes and leaders in Rome (generally bronze) although none have survived except one of Marcus Aurelius from about 175 AD. The idea was given new life in the Renaissance, for example Giambologna’s 1598 statue of Grand Duke Cosimo I.

It’s impossible to overstate how much art flowed throughout the Roman Empire. Roads, bathhouses, glassware, silverware, jewelry, gemcutting, etc. But this article is long enough as it is.

For more examples of Julio-Claudian art, here’s a compilation of over 43,000 photos: https://www.flickr.com/groups/93273909@N00/ 

There are many dates for the fall of the Roman Empire. 476 AD is a popular choice; the Germanic king Odoacer overthrew the last Emperor of the Western half, Romulus Augustulus, and became King of Italy.

Christian art largely began emerging after it was legalized.in 313 AD with the Edict of Milan. Early Christian-Roman art include the marble Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus and the Dogmatic Sarcophagus (330-340). Earlier examples do exist, like the Dura Europos wall paintings (240) but such art was on the fringes of Roman society due to ongoing persecution. The Vienna Genesis (500-600 AD) is one of the earliest illustrated Bibles.

Byzantine art used more overt Christian symbolism while blending Greco-Roman and Eastern styles. More on that later.

An early mosaic masterpiece: the Alexander Mosaic from 120-100 BC.

The Egyptians

The Greeks felt a particularly close affinity with Egypt and you can see the influence in their art. Herodotus wrote in Histories that “the Egyptians deemed themselves to be the oldest nation on earth.” A little later, he recounted that Egyptian priests could trace their genealogy back 345 generations (Book 2, Chapter 143). An impressive achievement by anyone’s reckoning, even in modern times. The Near East undoubtedly had an influence on the younger Mediterranean civilizations.

After the Bronze Age Collapse (1200 BC), the New Kingdom (1550-1069 BC) was followed by a period of decline. This was effectively the end of independent Egyptian art development. Their art retreated slightly into familiar, traditional, styles during the decline. Egypt was then conquered by the Assyrians, and the Persians, before Alexander the Great (356-232 BC) swept through the world. Also see: the Ptolemaic Kingdom.

Then came the Roman Period (30 BC to 619-641 AD) which was followed by the Muslim conquest of Egypt. The Muslims remained largely in control of Egypt until the Medieval era, where the Black Death killed 40% of the population, and the Ottoman Turks conquered Egypt in 1517 AD.

The Fayum mummy portraits from the Roman era are one example of evolving cultural norms. You can see how deeply Egyptian art was affected by Greek and Roman culture.

From The Met:

“For the first century following the Roman conquest, Egypt functioned in the Mediterranean world as an active and prosperous Roman province… produced papyrus, glass, and various finely crafted minor arts that were exported to the rest of the Roman empire. Its deserts yielded a variety of minerals, ores, and fine stones such as porphyry and granite, which were brought to Rome to be used for sculpture and architectural elements.”

“The conquest of Egypt and its incorporation into the Roman empire inaugurated a new fascination with its ancient culture. Obelisks and Egyptian-style architecture and sculpture were installed in Roman fora.”

Outside of Egypt, other Mediterranean-adjacent cultures included those of Mesopotamia.

The Near East

The Neo-Assyrian Empire controlled most of the Near East at the time of Rome’s founding, followed by the Neo-Babylonian Empire.

Assyrian lion hunt reliefs, from around 645 BC, are some of the earliest examples of “narrative sculpture”–one method of telling stories (often mythological). The Assyrians preferred the bas-relief (low) style of carving, where the subject doesn’t protrude much. Paint was used to emphasize figures. The Egyptians by contrast liked the sunk relief where you carve lines directly into the stone.

The famous Ishtar Gate was built around 575 BC under King Nebuchadnezzar II.

King Cyrus the Great founded the Achaemenid Empire, also known as the first Persian empire. Initially a vassal to the Median Empire, he led a revolt in 553-550 BC and overthrew them. From there his forces spread across the Near East, eventually leading to one of the world’s largest empires.

However, the Persians never united the region under a singular culture. It was a multi-state empire of semi-autonomous regions. This resulted in some different art styles, including the creation of a new Persian style.

Although Alexander the Great conquered the Achaemenid Empire by 330-328 BC, and more Hellenistic influences entered Mesopotamian art, the region kept much of their traditions. It isn’t as much of a difference as, say, Egypt.

The End of the Iron Age

The end of the Iron Age varies by region, so there isn’t a clean transition out of “ancient art.” Historians often put it after the collapse of the unified Roman Empire (395-476 AD). That’s what changed Europe enough so that the Medieval Era could begin.

The final two Seven Wonders, the Colossus of Rhodes and the Pharos Lighthouse of Alexandria, were built near the end of this era.

The Roman Republic (and Roman Empire) had a lasting influence on Europe which continues to the present day. Many cultures have considered themselves spiritual successors to the empire, including the United States of America.

Next up: Byzantine Art and the Middle Ages, from approximately 300-1500 AD. Or maybe we’ll explore the non-Mediterranean Iron Age first.

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The Gallery of Apollo

Timeline of Western Art, from Prehistoric to Ancient: Art History 101

Art is universal across all cultures. Creativity is in every corner of the globe, is essential to every civilization, and spans up to 100,000 years of human history. We can roughly organize periods of art into six categories: Prehistoric Bronze Age Iron Age…

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3 years ago · 1 like · 2 comments · BowTiedApollo

Since written records are few from the resulting Mediterranean dark ages, we don’t know much about what happened. A lot of early art and architecture also used wood, which decayed over time and little evidence remains.

The Greek Dark Ages

This lasted a little over 400 years. Archeological evidence focuses on pottery and bronze figurines, although many foundations of later Greek culture were laid here. This includes the polis (city-state), large temples, and Greek alphabet all coming into their own.

Art in this time period trended toward a new geometric style, perhaps influenced by Doric invaders, along with Egypt and the Near East.

Other than that, the most notable artistic works were oral poetry. Specifically, from Homer and Hesiod.

Homer is the most famous of all Greek poets, although details of his life are unclear, and we don’t even know if he was a real person. He could’ve been several people, since his resulting work is thought to stem from different stories which merged over time. In either case, we all know his legacy: the Iliad and the Odyssey, epic tales of Greek ideals and mythology surrounding the Trojan War and its aftermath. (Eratosthenes, a chief librarian at the Library of Alexandria, put the Trojan War at 1194-1184 BC.) The Athenian politician Pisistratus is said to be first to collect and organize Homer’s poems. (Also see: “Peisistratean recension” and “The Epic Cycle”)

Hesiod, in contrast, discussed common life/beliefs and was more of a realist. He was thought to be active between 750 and 650 BC, and may have lived at the same time as Homer. Hesiod is best known for Works and Days (basically a farmer’s almanac) and Theogony (the origins of the gods).

Archaic Greece

“Archaic Greece“ spans the years between the Greek Dark Ages and the biggest conflict of the time–the Greco-Persian Wars around 500 to 450 BC.

The “Dark Ages” ended with our first accepted date, the first Olympic Games of 776 BC. Greeks referenced winners, making dating easier from here on out, and measured time by Olympiads. Early records are less reliable but there isn’t any significant disagreement that the Olympics began in 800-700 BC, with other games following in 600-500 BC. The four Panhellenic Games (Olympic, Pythian, Nemean, Isthmian) also influenced the arts. Athletes entered artistic competitions as well as physical. Most people don’t know this.

The most ambitious young men in Greece made it their goal to win as many games as they could, and if possible, hold the crown for all four Panhellenic Games. Winners didn’t receive much of a prize at the games themselves–just a garland–but they could be awarded fame and fortune in their hometowns. A city might allow an Olympic winner to eat at the public dining halls for free, or have statues of him, for example.

Today we know the Olympics for athletic skill, but in ancient times they were important for cultural development as well. There’s a theory that Greek sculpture and art evolved from its geometric style partly because artists attended the Panhellenic Games; they could study the human form in every pose imaginable, and competition between artists led them to increasingly elaborate works to win prizes.

There are stories of beauty contests too, since the Greeks prized beauty so highly. There was the kallisteia for women and euandria (or euexia) for men. These were potentially inspired by the legendary Judgment of Paris. Contests were especially prominent in Elis, Tenedos, and the island of Lesbos.

Lesbos is famous today for the poet Sappho (630-570 BC). Greeks widely praised her work, and declared her “the tenth muse,” although unfortunately few examples have survived. Also unfortunate is that she’s now best known for the modern words “sapphic” and “lesbian.” Nobody knows if she was a lesbian and it’s irrelevant conjecture. What IS known is that she was considered a brilliant poet and, according to some, second only to Homer.

In the visual arts, things soon evolved past their Geometric and Egyptian influences.

Kouros statues (around 600-480 BC) are thought to have been grave markers. There’s a clear Egyptian and Mesopotamian influence in the aesthetic and technique. Forms are stiff, nearly symmetrical, and often life-sized.

Black-figure painting developed in pottery around 700 BC, while Athenians developed the well-known red-figure vase painting technique around 530-520 BC. 

Greek columns, arguably their most famous architectural feature, emerged as we know it today with the Doric style; around 700-600 BC. This marked a shift toward using stone as a primary material, as opposed to wood.  Doric style was simple, masculine-oriented, and geometric, like the art of the late Greek Dark Ages.

The first known temple in the competing Ionic style (Temple of Hera on Samos) was built around 570-560 BC. The famed Temple of Artemis at Ephesus was constructed around 550 BC. Elaborate Corinthian-style columns were the last to be used throughout Greece. The oldest known temple with them dates to 427 BC (Temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae) or 335-334 BC (Choragic Monument of Lysicrates). The Romans later used elements of these columns in their own works.

Pythagoras (570-495 BC) is allegedly responsible for many scientific and mathematical discoveries, including the “Pythagorean theorem” and calculating the Earth’s circumference. He also influenced the arts by possibly popularizing the concept of mathematical proportions in sculpture and architecture, along with “Pythagorean numerology” (similar to the concept of Sacred Geometry). Some parts of music theory are attributed to him as well.

Related to poetry, the ancient Greeks always had a big emphasis on musical prowess.

Most people have heard the myth of Orpheus: a talented musician who charmed his way into the underworld to retrieve the spirit of his dead wife Eurydice. Many artistic works have been inspired by this. By some accounts, however, he was a real person (obviously disputed) and said to be the greatest musician and poet of his time. References to him began appearing around 600-500 BC, as did Orphic Cults, a mystery religion with some connections to Pythagoreanism.

As the Greeks eventually beat back the Persian Empire, their culture trended toward a Golden Age.

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Classical Antiquity

“Classical Greece” is usually deemed the period between the Greco-Persian Wars (including the battles of Marathon and Thermopylae) and Alexander The Great’s death. Around 500 BC to 323 BC. The Statue of Zeus at Olympia and the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus were built during this time period.

The era included some of the world’s most important figures, like:

• Pericles (495-429 BC)

• Herodotus (484-425 BC)

• Phidias (480-430 BC)

• Socrates (470-399 BC) 

• Thucydides (460-400 BC)

• Hippocrates (460-370 BC)

• Aristophanes (446-386 BC)

• Xenophon (430-354 BC)

• Plato (428-347 BC)

• Aristotle (384-322 BC)

• Demosthenes (384-322 BC)

Also worthy of note (among others too numerous to name) are the “three ancient Greek tragedians” Sophocles, Aeschylus, and Euripides. Aeschylus' Oresteia in particular has been called the greatest work of literature to exist between Homer and Shakespeare.

Pliny the Elder wrote in The Natural History that the painter Zeuxis, for a contest, created such a realistic still life that birds tried to eat the grapes he painted. His rival Parrhasius won that contest though, and is credited with the invention of chiaroscuro.

It’s difficult to discuss painting since so few examples survive in any meaningful way. This is why pottery, sculpture, and architecture tends to be on most peoples’ minds. But the Greeks did make great advances in technique, form, and color, laying the groundwork for the future European Renaissance.

Most ancient Greek works show an idealized world, if not subtly enhanced. Many statues were modeled after the Olympic winners who were viewed as the peak of physical beauty. Artists preferred to show humanity at its best.

Greeks used what’s called the “lost-wax technique” for bronze. You’d create a wax sculpture and surround it with clay. Heating the clay solidifies it (like firing pottery) while melting the wax away to create an empty space. Molten metal (usually bronze) is then poured into the clay. Lastly, artisans would polish the cooled metal and add details like glass eyes.

Artists abandoned the Archaic style by creating statues in increasingly relaxed and natural poses. Early statues (480-450 BC) were still a bit stiff and formal, although they quickly became elaborate and elegant (450-323 BC) with realistic fabric folds and expressive poses. This included contrapposto. Historians sometimes divide these into Early/High/Late Classical.

Sculptors moved from bronze to marble and ivory, partly because of its added realism. Artists like Phidias and Polykleitos preferred it, although some like Myron stuck with bronze.

The Golden Age of Athens ended with the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC) and the Corinthian War (395-387 BC). Although the Spartans were victorious in both, they were short-lived victories. Their defeat at the 371 BC Battle of Leuctra kicked Sparta into steep decline. They faced many issues and weren’t able to recover.

The Spartans have little surviving art and architecture. They preferred music and poetry over painting and sculpture. These are easier to lose with the passage of time. It’s said that Sparta was rich in art in its earliest years, and this fell off as the culture became militarized. This was viewed as necessary since so few Spartan citizens existed compared to the lower classes, and tight control over their numerous slaves (Helots) consumed much “free time.”

Hellenistic Era

Macedon’s rise to power was the next big event. King Phillip II began expanding his territory around 359 BC. By one account, his goal was to stabilize Greece in preparation for another war with Persia. His son Alexander the Great took the Macedonian throne in 336 BC. He conquered the Achaemenid Persian Empire by 330-328 BC and continued from there.

The time between Alexander’s death (323 BC) and the emergence of the Roman Empire (31 BC) is known as the “Hellenistic period.“ This is considered the height of Greek cultural influence on the Mediterranean world.

Alexander’s generals (Diadochoi) divided his territory into their own pieces. Goods and ideas flowed between the Greeks and the areas under their tenuous control. Artistic expression expanded, with even Buddhist art taking on some Greek sculptural thought. Greek Elites commissioned many works in their new lands.

“Classical” Greece is best known for its idealism. They used elements of proportion, harmony, symmetry, and other objective standards of beauty. By the time of Hellenistic Greece, these were falling more to the background in favor of lifelike art with flowing lines. Movement over elegance. Drama over formality. Emotion over stoicism.

The famous Venus de Milo was carved around 150-125 BC. Laocoön and His Sons, one of Greece’s most elaborate works, is thought to date to 27 BC at the earliest. Although these are technically after the Hellenistic period, they’re the natural evolution of this mindset and arguably its peak, not to be equaled until the Renaissance.

The Romans eventually displaced Greek dominance during the Punic Wars (264-146 BC).

We’ll discuss the Roman Empire, and beyond, next time:

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There’s wide disagreement over when and how the Americas were settled. Humans could’ve moved into the Americas anywhere between 50,000 and 10,000 years ago. Maybe earlier. Archeological evidence is inconclusive and incomplete.

What people are familiar with is the “Clovis first” theory since it’s taught in grade schools. Nomadic hunter-gatherers walked across the Bering Land Bridge when there were passages through the ice covering a large swathe of the continent. The bridge existed from 45,000 to 12,000 BC, with ice-free valleys appearing in the later stages of this time range. The Clovis culture was thought to be the first major culture to populate the Americas, after 14,000 BC.

Over the past 10-20 years, this theory has been questioned more and more. Dozens of archeological sites have artifacts that can be dated to 20,000 BC or 30,000 BC or even older. The disputed Cerutti Mastodon site even goes back to 129,000 BC.

Many archaeologists now believe the Americas were settled by boat. The “land bridge” hypothesis may have happened concurrently, or in conjunction, or not at all.

In any case, we have little surviving art from so long ago. It’s mostly small stone or bone tools. These early Americans didn’t have writing, megaliths, or other obvious markers of civilization.

North America

The climate stabilized in 8000-7000 BC, allowing early societies to flourish and expand.

Mound building became popular after 4000-3500 BC and is clear evidence of complex societies. Well-known structures include those at Watson Brake (3500 BC), Poverty Point (1700-1100 BC), Serpent Mound (sometime before 300-100 BC), and Moundville (1000 AD).

Early groups generally fall under the “Woodland period” of 1000 BC to 1000 AD. This was a period after hunter-gatherers transitioned to agriculture (1850 BC). Pottery became more widespread as culture and technology advanced.

One early culture was that of the Hopewell, from 200-100 BC to 500 AD. They built large mounds and had a wide variety of art. They created pipes, pottery, necklaces, statues, and other pieces, sometimes using exotic materials like shark teeth and silver. (Note: the Hopewell weren’t exactly a single culture; they were multiple groups which shared some traditions and a large trade network.)

Between 500 and 1000 AD, it becomes more difficult to discuss specific major cultures. Communities spread out and developed their own unique cultures, trading with each other less often, and creating a fragmented landscape with hundreds of different tribes. The modern-day Canadian government recognizes over 600 “First Nations” and the United States recognizes slightly fewer.

North American “cultural areas” can be roughly divided into 10 categories.

Alternatively, they can be organized by language families, but that makes it more complicated.

Either way, it’s difficult to give a broad overview of Native American art, given the sheer variety of cultural spheres of influence.

Some quick examples:

Tribes in the Great Plains made extensive use of beads, feathers, and leather.

Well-known tribal groups in the southwest include the Apache and Navajo, who shared ancestors that entered the region by 1400 AD. While the Apache remained nomadic, the Navajo turned to farming, which they adopted from the Pueblo people.

The Pueblo (Anasazi) Mesa Verde cliff dwellings were built between 1000 and 1300 AD. Some walls, and pottery, were decorated with simple geometric designs. Despite the complexity of the settlement and erecting over 600 buildings, the site was soon abandoned, and the Pueblo migrated further south. Drought is thought to be the main culprit.

Around 1000 AD, Nordic explorers discovered North America (Vinland).

The Woodland period is followed by the Mississippian cultures (mostly 800-1500 AD), which included the Fort Ancient culture and Plaquemine culture, among others. The Mississippians built large pyramid-like mounds. Their ancient city of Cahokia included over 100, including the titanic Monk’s Mound which is considered the largest American pyramid north of Mexico. The area was abandoned around 1350 AD. Since they didn’t develop writing, speculation abounds as to why. It was likely related to climate and/or politics, since no evidence of war has been found.

Christopher Columbus landed in the Caribbean in 1492, which launched many subsequent voyages to the Americas, including those of Amerigo Vespucci (1499), Hernán Cortés (1519), and Francisco Pizarro (1524).

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Central America (Mesoamerica)

Early Mesoamerica (Preclassic & Classic)

Early Mesoamerica (commonly given as 18,000 to 8,000 BC) is characterized by hunter-gatherer tribes and zero pottery. Thus, no art.

Agriculture and permanent settlements began appearing around 3,500 BC, if not earlier. Pottery was introduced around 2300 BC and slowly replaced stone. Initial designs were modeled after early natural vessels like gourds. Since the wheel wasn’t a thing here, they shaped clay by hand and/or used molds. There’s evidence that textiles were woven in 1800-1400 BC.

The first major ancient culture was the Olmecs (1500-400 BC), “known as the ‘mother culture’ of Mesoamerica.” Unfortunately, they didn’t have writing, so much of their history is speculative. Most buildings haven’t survived to the present day either. They used earth and clay to build their settlements, keeping stone only for sculpture.

The Olmec are best known for their colossal stone heads with helmets. Other art includes figurines and jade face masks. They allegedly invented a complex calendar, the famous Mesoamerican ballgame, the number zero, and bloodletting.

In 400-350 BC, Olmec civilization went into sudden and steep decline. Likely from environmental changes such as drought, earthquakes, and/or volcanic eruptions.

Teotihuacan rose in power around this time. Archeological evidence shows that the area began as a collection of small villages in 600-200 BC. Over the next few hundred years, a massive city developed, including some of the world’s largest structures. They’re known for their incredible pyramids, along with murals and obsidian trading. The center of their empire is thought to be the largest city in the Americas at its height (350-650 AD). Like the Olmecs, they didn’t have writing.

Teotihuacan declined in 650-750 AD, in the midst of unknown conflict(s). Speculation says it was a civil war or other uprising; several areas were burned and sacked. Other cultures soon came to prominence in their wake, including the Coyotlatelco and the Toltec culture (which reached its peak in 950-1150 AD).

The Zapotec civilization began around 700-500 BC in southern Mexico (modern-day Oaxaca). They’re well-known for their cities of Mitla and Monte Albán. They continued until about 1500 AD, when Zapotecs came into conflict with the Aztec Empire; the Spanish conquistadors swept through soon after, and defeated the Zapotecs by 1527.

The Great Pyramid of Cholula (Tlachihualtepetl), the world’s largest pyramid by volume, was built in multiple (4-6) stages. It began with a small building in 300-200 BC. Typical for the time, its murals were initially painted only with red pigments.

El Tajín of the Veracruz culture (100-1000 AD) was at its height between 600-800 and 1200 AD. It was an important trade center influenced by the Olmecs and Teotihuacan. Their architecture differed from other Mesoamerican cultures, including the use of cement roofs and decorative niches. It’s not clear what caused the downfall of El Tajín. It’s thought that the city was invaded, burned, and abandoned.

Mayan Culture

The famous Maya civilization is one of the oldest. Small villages dotted the Yucatán Peninsula and surrounding areas as early as 8000-3000 BC. The first complex societies rose after 2000 BC, beginning the “Preclassic Mayan” period, where villages coalesced into cities (generally independent city-states–there was never a “Mayan Empire”). Archeological efforts are ongoing, and we currently believe 750 BC is when the first major cities arose. Causeways and pyramids were built even at early sites like Nakbe and El Mirador.

Tikal was likewise inhabited early, with major construction efforts coming later. Its pyramids and platforms began construction in 400-300 BC. This is also when the Mayans began using a hieroglyphic-style writing system.

Their art is mature and complex, with well-defined techniques alongside a variety of materials and aims.

Calakmul, the “Snake Kingdom,” was one of the largest Mayan powers. In the Late Classic (600-900 AD) it was thought to control a population of 1.75 million people. Their main rival was Tikal, with conflicts taking place in 537-838 AD.

“Classic” Mayan culture, their height of accomplishment, is categorized as 250-900 AD. The Mayan civilization went into steep decline around 800-900 AD. Called the Classic Maya collapse, it’s “one of the greatest unsolved mysteries in archaeology,” much like the European Bronze Age Collapse. Several factors may have gone into the Mayan collapse, and speculation is abundant: disease, drought, invasion, etc.

Other important Mayan sites include: 

• Copán

• Palenque

• Yaxchilan

• Uxmal

• Chichen Itza

Postclassic Mesoamerica

Mesoamerica’s “Postclassic Period” (900-1521 AD) is the final few centuries before the Spanish encountered the Aztec and Maya peoples.

The Aztecs (Mexica) began as a semi-nomadic mercenary tribe traveling south from the present-day American Southwest. (Note: The Aztecs rewrote their own history, so their true origins are unverified.) They made their way down into central Mexico around 1250 AD. In 1325 they founded what would become their capital, the tremendous city Tenochtitlan. The Aztecs grew in power through forming alliances and their experience in warfare. The beginning of the Aztec Empire is assigned to 1427 AD. At the heart of that empire was a vibrant and complex culture of controversial artistic accomplishments. 

The Aztec capital had gardens, farms, man-made islands, levees, drawbridges, aqueducts, bottled water, sanitation workers, saunas, a free-trade market, a police force, a zoo, an aquarium, a museum, temples, etc. They also had schools, including a music school, and the equivalent of an opera house. Flowers, statues, and works of art decorated the streets. The king’s palace had hundreds of rooms, including rooms for visiting nobles or ambassadors. The Spanish called Tenochtitlan the “Venice of the New World.”

Aztecs assigned great importance to poetry and music, and everyone was expected to memorize at least one poem. Their children were taught both art and war, literal warrior-poets. The most famous Aztec poet was the warrior-king Nezahualcoyotl of Texcoco. He was a scholar, architect, engineer, artist, and more.

The Codex Mendoza is one of many sources on Aztec life and history. One of the most famous pieces of Aztec art is the stone calendar of Tenochtitlan, a 12-ton stone disk called the Sun Stone.

For almost a century, the Aztecs controlled a large portion of Mexico, until Hernán Cortés led the collapse of their empire in 1521.

It’s an odd dichotomy—the Aztecs were brutal warriors, famed for human sacrifice and towers of skulls. And yet they had some of the greatest artistic ambitions in the Americas, while known among rivals for their elaborate flowery speech (which allegedly gave the Spaniards’ translators a hard time).

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As for the Mayans? After the Classic Maya collapse diminished their power, they were largely a scattered culture split into warring kingdoms. Chichen Itza benefited, at first, from the decline of other regional powers. They were the dominant power for almost 200 years until their own decline, around 1050-1100 AD.

The Mayan people first came into contact with the Spanish in 1502 and 1511. Hernán Cortés heard of the Aztecs through the Maya, setting the future fall of Tenochtitlan in motion. Even though the Mayans lacked a central power, the Spanish reported that they were wealthy and thriving, comparing their art and architecture to the Egyptians.

The Spanish began their Yucatán colonization efforts in 1527, subjugating a large portion of the peninsula over the years. When they launched their final assault in the 1600s, just one kingdom remained. The last independent Mayan capital fell in 1697.

Because the Mayan culture was so fractured, it took the Spanish longer to conquer them than the Aztecs. Some Mayan culture survives to the present day.

South America

South America was theoretically the last region of the Americas to be settled. Still, like northern sites, we don’t know exactly when or how. It’s thought that human habitation began around 15,000 BC (and of course this is disputed).

Andean South America

The areas around the Andes mountains (the world’s longest continental mountain range) gave rise to the continent’s most famous civilizations, including the Inca.

Plants were domesticated in South America between 8000 and 5000 BC, including potatoes. Llamas and alpacas were kept as both a source of wool and as pack animals. The environment played a large role in how civilizations developed.

Large-scale agriculture began sometime around 3500 BC. Villages and cities followed, along with early platform mounds and temples. Pottery was invented in the Andes around 2000 BC.

The city of Caral, according to some, is the oldest city in the Americas and founded in 3500 BC. The Caral-Supe civilization (Norte Chico) invented Quipu, a mysterious record-keeping system which used knotted and colored strings to convey information. The later Incan Empire used it instead of writing.

Unusually, visual arts are few at Caral. It seems the people preferred music as their art form of choice, alongside their textiles and architecture (conspicuously absent of carvings or stucco).

The next major culture was the Chavín, emerging near the Peruvian coastline around 1000 BC. Like the Caral culture, they didn’t have a writing system, but they did have elaborate art and architecture. Their style influenced other cultures in the Andes, leading to a recognizable regional style similar to Mesoamerican art.

The Muisca culture began emerging around the same time, in modern-day Colombia. They had agriculture and pottery, organizing into a loose confederation of tribes by 800 AD. Their varied and complex art includes significant goldworking, which led to the legend of El Dorado. A Muisca ruler (zipa) would allegedly enter Lake Guatavita with gold dust on his body as part of a ritual. Somehow this became our modern story about a city made of gold. The Spanish conquered the Muisca by 1537-1540, and they still exist today. With their long history and accomplishments, they’re thought of as the fourth most important pre-Columbian civilization (after the Maya, Aztec, and Inca).

The Paracas culture (800-100 BC) is known for their shaft tombs and mummies, along with their skill in textile weaving and water management. Their mummies were buried with elaborate textile wrappings and jewelry, which calls to mind the Egyptians.

The Nazca culture either evolved from Paracas or was strongly influenced by it. They’re best known for their underground aqueducts (puquios) and the Nazca Lines, in the deserts of southern Peru, created between 500 BC and 500 AD. Nobody knows the purpose of the lines; they may point to water sources or various pathways, or serve an astronomical or religious function. It seems they were constructed with rope and wooden posts, a relatively quick and simple method which could be accomplished with just a few people. The culture went into decline after 500, vanishing by 750 AD.

Other kingdoms and cultures rose and fell over time, including the Moche culture (100-700 AD) and Chimú Empire (Chimor Kingdom). The Tiwanaku Empire and Wari Empire both fell around 1100 AD. The Tiwanaku are probably best known for Pumapunku in modern-day Bolivia.

Then, from the city of Cusco, came the Inca Empire. They began expanding in 1438, and within 100 years, controlled the largest empire in the Americas.

Although the Inca didn’t invent the wheel or have an Iron Age, they built an extensive civilization and road network.

Machu Picchu is one of the most recognizable archeological sites in the world. It was built around 1450, possibly as a large royal estate. It’s thought that 750 people lived there among 200 buildings.

A civil war broke out among the Inca in 1529 after arguments over who would take the throne: Huáscar or Atahualpa. While the latter won, the Spanish–led by Francisco Pizarro–captured him soon after, in 1532. After 40 more years of fighting, the last monarch of the empire was killed by the Spanish in 1572.

Non-Andean South America

This region of the world is one of the toughest to do archeology in, mostly because of the size and density of the Amazon rainforest. Many potential sites have been overtaken by the jungle as nature reclaims its own. We don’t know much about eastern South America, especially compared to other regions of the Americas.

Some reported archeological evidence of human activity confusingly predates evidence from North America and Mesoamerica. UNESCO says Serra da Capivara National Park has cave paintings more than 25,000 years old, and some paintings may go back to 48,000 BC.

Early cultures included the Marajoara, and the people of Kuhikugu which may have inspired the “Lost City of Z.” Both built earthwork mounds and their societies collapsed before the Portuguese met them.

Eastern South America didn’t develop the same art, architecture, or agricultural habits as the Andean regions. Tribes had pottery, created geoglyphs, cultivated plants, used “terra preta” (black earth), and more. Yet remained largely semi-nomadic hunter-gatherers throughout history.

Today, it’s widely known that many indigenous groups (estimated at 400+) inhabit the Amazon Basin, and some (estimated at 100) have never come into contact with Europeans or their descendants.

In 1500 AD, Pedro Álvares Cabral claimed Brazil for Portugal. It’s thought that disease became widespread soon after, killing many indigenous groups who had no immunity toward them. Estimates range into the millions.

The Spanish explorer Francisco de Orellana was the first European to sail the Amazon river across the continent. Friar Gaspar de Carvajal documented this trip, reporting signs of vast civilizations. Modern-day LIDAR may corroborate this.

Closing Thoughts

Early American art was vibrant, with parallels with other cultures throughout history. I couldn’t get to literally everything (this is already one of my longest-ever Substack articles) but this can easily be a launchpad for doing further research.

What’s interesting is the apparent human need to stack dirt and stone. Most major cultures practiced some form of mound building, if not outright building pyramids. This is true even of cultures that had no known contact with each other.

Contact with Europe brought a period of upheaval as the Baroque style dominated the globe. Native artistic styles were diminished in favor of what was popular among the Spanish. This remained the case until wars of independence broke out across the Americas, like in Mexico (1810-1821) and further south. Simón Bolívar, the “Liberator of America,” led much of South America to independence (1811-1826).

In modern times, descendants of indigenous Americans (and others) have attempted to revive certain styles and techniques.

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This is a reader-supported publication. For further support of my work:

• I sell physical artwork at ApolloGallery.org with more to come

• I have a masterlist of 100+ AI-related tools

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Most people these days know NFTs for “profile pic” collections like Cryptopunks and Bored Ape Yacht Club (BAYC). This isn’t representative of the digital art world as a whole. Let’s discuss the fine art angle instead.

While I haven’t done much in the way of NFTs, either minting or collecting, I do follow a number of NFT artists. Unsurprisingly, they’re mostly artists which fit my vibe. I’d like to take a brief moment to showcase some of their works.

If you’re new around here: I’m fairly traditionalist while willing to embrace new technologies and modes of thought. The works I produce are typically based on the 1700-1900 period: Neoclassicism, Romanticism, Victorian, and Impressionism. Plus other movements like Baroque and the Hudson River School.

I like to experiment with different ideas and styles, as shown on my webstore and Instagram.

Let’s get started.

In no particular order:

DeltaSauce

Delta experiments with different styles, including the concept of liminal space, but some of his works are clearly traditionally-inspired with a modern twist. Classic elements like aqueducts and pillars may appear at any moment.

https://twitter.com/delta_sauce

Sadboi

Sadboi’s works are stylistically reminiscent of ancient Greek red-figure and black-figure pottery while using a unique modern illustrative style which reminds me of artists like the Clark brothers (Invisible Creature). It’s dynamic and epic.

Everything is hand-drawn. Here’s a great process video:

Infiniteyay

Not strictly classical-aligned, but there’s certainly a traditional-inspired aesthetic at play. Her art is generally surreal while having the appearance of a detailed oil painting. A stark interplay between light and shadow while being collage-like. Most pieces I’ve seen have the vibe of “a dream about a carnival inside a dollhouse.”

https://twitter.com/infiniteyay

Charles AI

Charles is more overt than many other artists. His art often includes corinthian columns, togas, sweeping landscapes, and other hallmarks of classical Greek and Roman culture. His more surreal pieces tend to have a modern vibe which, to me, would fit alongside artists like Rene Magritte and Edward Hopper.

https://twitter.com/HODLFrance

Claire Silver

Her works, in particular the “AI Art Is Not Art” collection, are unquestionably inspired by traditional styles. Claire has mentioned Klimt, Sargent, Ziqian, De Morgan, Godward, Degas, Thayer, Waterhouse, Monet, and others. Some of what she does can be classified as dark post-impressionist; lots of neat examples though, including pieces which have the spirit of Art Nouveau.

A great story: “When my piece arrived at Sotheby's, I was told it sat for 2 days as they thought it belonged with the impressionist collection, not realizing it was part of the NFT auction. In a bit of synchronicity, it was trained on the aesthetic of several master artists featured in the sale.”

https://twitter.com/ClaireSilver12

Ren AI

Ren is a painter now exploring AI tools. His website says “I merge the old masters' style with modern aesthetics using instinctive brush strokes, layered lights and hidden meanings.”

https://twitter.com/RenAI_NFT

Maneki Neko AI

A self-described “Anti-minimalist artist,” her intricate works simultaneously evoke Art Nouveau and Hieronymus Bosch. I’m also reminded of old fairytale illustrations and Japanese artists like Yoshitaka Amano.

https://twitter.com/ManekiNekoAIArt

Diggium

Diggium has a wide variety of traditionally-inspired works which use concepts from Rococo, Surrealism, Vaporwave, and more.

https://twitter.com/diggium

Jeremy Booth

Jeremy Booth is another digital artist who doesn’t use AI. He does a lot of Western-themed vector illustrations.

https://twitter.com/jeremybooth

Closing thoughts

This isn’t what many people would expect upon hearing “NFT.”

There are many fantastic artists in the space and I can’t possibly name them all. I encourage everyone to look for themselves.

Although I often deride modern and contemporary art, there are absolutely living artists creating aesthetic works that everyone can appreciate.

I have stylistic preferences without being beholden to them. I’ve created works in nearly every style/genre/medium which exists. Not just visual arts, but in music too. Experimentation is important. What I look at is AESTHETIC above all else; the rest is incidental. If the aesthetic is good then I like it. Simple as.

There are also entertaining works like batzdu’s “Pepedenza” series.

Contemporary art OVERALL is certainly in a sad state of affairs.

There are too many examples to list…

Although it often doesn’t seem like it these days, it IS possible to respect the past and listen to objective standards of beauty. Innovation and progress don’t necessarily correlate with low quality.

Interesting art exists everywhere, in every time period. We simply have to find it and support it. The winds of change are here.

Beauty matters. I don’t make the rules.

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Let’s find out.

The Wonders of the Ancient World were constructed between 2700 BC and 280 BC. Most lists have, in order of age:

1. Great Pyramid of Giza

2. Hanging Gardens of Babylon

3. Temple of Artemis at Ephesus

4. Statue of Zeus at Olympia

5. Mausoleum at Halicarnassus

6. Colossus of Rhodes (Colossus of the Sun)

7. Pharos Lighthouse of Alexandria

Now, only the Giza pyramid remains. Fires or earthquakes destroyed most of the wonders.

The ancient Greek historian Diodorus Siculus wrote the first known reference to “seven wonders” in his tremendous 40-volume Bibliotheca historica (60-30 BC). This included the Babylonian Obelisk of Queen Semiramis which other lists don’t include. By most accounts, Semiramis was a mythological figure, not a historical one, based on multiple actual women like Queen Shammuramat. (This was common in old tales, since ancient peoples tended to blend legend and reality. For example, many Greeks claimed their family tree began with gods.) Siculus’ account may be a secondhand story shared with him, or he somehow misattributed an actual obelisk.

In either case, few people seemed to agree with Siculus about the glory of this alleged obelisk.

Since Siculus, many people have drawn up lists of seven (or more) “wonders.” The Greek geographer Strabo was among those who popularized the idea. Other Greeks included the poet Antipater of Sidon and Philo of Byzantium.

Antipater’s list matches our modern list, although he substitutes the Pharos Lighthouse for the Walls of Babylon.

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We can roughly organize periods of art into six categories:

1. Prehistoric

2. Bronze Age

3. Iron Age

4. Medieval

5. Renaissance

6. Modern & Contemporary

This 3-part Substack series will serve as an introduction to a portion of world art, combining two categories in each article. Entire textbooks have been written on each of these categories, so I won’t cover literally everything (for now). I like the 80/20 rule.

We can however place every movement in its proper context. A brief overview of what they're like, how they fit together into human history, how influence crosses borders, etc. I’ll link a few resources for further reading.

Note: I’ll cover American and Asian art in the future. For now we’ll focus on Europe, Africa, and the Near East. These are more interconnected.

Let’s start with the very origins of art and culture.

Prehistoric Art

The earliest known art dates back over 70,000 years ago: the Blombos cave drawings. Humans made “crayons” of rock and clay. Coincidentally, Homo sapiens developed basic language around this time (thought to emerge between 50,000 and 100,000 years ago). As art and communication developed, humans developed the capacity for culture.

Art became more complex over the next tens of thousands of years. Beads, cave paintings, symbolic artifacts, etc. Humans spread out by both land and sea, and the world’s small population meant there wasn’t much cross-cultural contact. Most of what we see is universal.

Cave paintings are typically 15,000 to 40,000 years old. The famous Lascaux cave paintings date back to around 17,000 years ago. The earliest ones are in places like Italy’s Fumane Cave, Spain’s El Castillo Cave, and in multiple Indonesian caves from 35,000 to 40,000 BC.

(Autist note: Dating and attribution are tricky, because Neanderthals and Denisovans also figured out art. For example, Maltravieso Cave in Spain. Its cave paintings are older than estimates for the arrival of humans in Europe. Denisova Cave included the world’s oldest needle alongside jewelry at least 50,000 years old. And stone tools even predate humanity; for example, ancestors like Homo habilis. The Stone Age began millions of years ago, although it’s divided into different eras.)

We’re a species of builders. We love making stuff.

The famous “Venus figurines” are often around 25,000 years old. They fall within the same time period as cave painting activity.

We discovered most of the world’s oldest pottery in East Asia. Xianrendong Cave and Yuchanyan Cave held work that dates back as far as 20,000 years ago.

What’s interesting is that so much early art is decorative. Even as humanity struggled for survival, they had the time and willpower to make jewelry and paint. It contributed nothing to our survival (unlike pottery, which is necessary and practical).

The Neolithic Revolution

Humans began transitioning from hunter-gatherers to agricultural societies around 10,000 to 12,000 years ago. The Natufian culture for example. Also see: the Holocene epoch and Younger Dryas. As free time increased, and people became attached to specific areas, early foundations of art and writing (proto-writing) increased in tandem. We largely abandoned caves and petroglyphs (outdoor rock carvings and paintings) became more common.

Villages, towns, and temples followed. We get detailed carvings along with elaborate megalithic structures like in Göbekli Tepe (9000 BC), the temples at Malta (3600 BC), and Stonehenge (3000-2400 BC).

Give men access to giant rocks and we’ll stack them. It’s just natural.

This step is important for the relief carvings (around rock instead of in rock) in some of these works. Not just the architectural and technological advancements.

One of the earliest cities is Çatalhöyük in modern-day Turkey. Constructed as early as 7500 BC, the dense settlement housed over 6,000 people. It had no streets and people accessed homes by rooftop. Many homes were decorated with paintings and sculpture, including one of the world’s oldest landscape paintings (of an erupting volcano). It became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2012.

The world’s oldest major city is thought to be Uruk (in Mesopotamia) dating back to ~4000 BC. It likely held over 40,000 people at its height. The “Fertile Crescent” region of the Middle East flourished early on, due to ease of agriculture and access to the Euphrates and Tigris rivers. A food surplus is essential for civilizations to develop.

Uruk eventually transitioned from a collection of small farming villages into a complex unified city. They created government administration, a standing military, political and religious systems, and more. This same process would happen throughout the world, including famous cities like Athens. Centralization had benefits.

The first coherent writing systems (cuneiform and hieroglyphics) emerged around 3500-3000 BC.

By 3000 BC, the global population was thought to be at 50 million people.

With advancements in technology and culture, the Stone Age transitioned to the Bronze Age, and the invention of writing ended the Prehistoric era.

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Ancient Art and the Bronze Age

Cultural evolution exploded alongside widespread farming and the evolution of cities. This included metalworking, tapestries, wall art, temples, monuments, and social classes. The start of the Bronze Age is usually given as 3300 BC, although it varies by region.

The Near East: Mesopotamian & Egyptian Art 

Mesopotamia encompasses several cultures as part of The Fertile Crescent. In the modern era it’s largely the region of Iraq and Syria.

Sumer is our source for the world’s oldest known literature, the Epic of Gilgamesh, dating back to 2100 BC and written in cuneiform. The Great Ziggurat of Ur was completed around 2000 BC. Sumerian ships traveled the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea to trade with others, importing and exporting some cultural elements.

To the north rose Mesopotamia’s arguably first empire: the Akkadians, known for Sargon of Akkad (2334-2279 BC) who overtook the Sumerians. The empire came to an end in 2154-2147 BC. Their grip on the peoples of the area wasn’t tight enough, there were arguments over succession, and invaders hit the Akkadians. Sargon’s sons weren’t the ruler he was.

The Sumerian and Akkadian cultures effectively unified over time, and the Akkadian Empire is sometimes said to have been succeeded by a Neo-Sumerian Empire. After a period of turmoil, the Babylonian Empire came to prominence.

Babylon, in central Mesopotamia, is best known for King Hammurabi who reigned from 1792 to 1750 BC. He conquered most of Mesopotamia and introduced the Code of Hammurabi. Upon his death, however, the empire fell apart. Subsequent rulers were weaker, the area was tough to defend, and independent city-states like Assyria chafed under external rule.

One nail in Babylonia’s coffin was invasion by the Hittites (from modern-day Turkey) in 1595-1531 BC, although it made a comeback from 626-539 BC until it was overthrown by the Persians (the Achaemenid Empire) and later conquered by Alexander The Great in 332 BC. More on that later.

Assyrian art is among the most complex of early civilizations. Their main city (Assur) was an important trade hub which grew out of an Akkadian city-state. This gave Assyrian culture a fantastic platform upon which to build, including access to the region’s greatest artisans. They reworked a lot of old Babylonian literature too.

Assyrian art is both combination and culmination of Sumerian, Akkadian, and Babylonian art, as well as other cultures from the region (plus invading cultures and trade partners).

There are other cultures in ancient Mesopotamia, but for the sake of brevity, I’ll move on for now. We can revisit the topic later.

Egyptian art is what everyone is familiar with, partly since Egypt’s apex outshines Mesopotamian art. Intricate glyphs, painting, papyrus, monuments, jewelry, sarcophagi, etc. We all know what this looks like. It’s good stuff. Egypt had more influence on/from the Mediterranean and Mesopotamian kingdoms than Sub-Saharan Africa. There are many reasons behind this, so I’ll probably write an entire article on Egypt later.

The Bronze Age more or less coincides with the Egyptian Old Kingdom (2686-2181 BC) to the New Kingdom (1550-1069 BC) periods, which had tremendous influence. The Great Pyramid of Giza (the first of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World) and Great Sphinx were both constructed around 2600-2500 BC.

Sub-Saharan African Art

African art is divided along several cultural and regional lines. North Africa, for example, has Mediterranean influences, unlike West and South. Areas heavily differ and you’ll find variety everywhere, which makes sense given the sheer size of the continent.

Sub-Saharan African art is fairly under-studied, especially between 10,000 BC and 1,000 AD. Prehistoric art is well-documented as part of “Out of Africa” theories, as mentioned above. Otherwise, prior to Africa’s Bronze Age and Iron Age, we don’t have much information. Most art was created with natural materials (like wood) which decayed and vanished over time.

The Nok culture (in modern-day Nigeria) is thought to have discovered iron forging between 1000 and 500 BC.

Mediterranean Art and Early Europe

Greece is widely called “the birthplace of Western civilization.” Human habitation goes back as far as 210,000 years ago. We can see the full human timeline, from the Stone Age to the Agricultural Revolution.

Early farming cultures in Europe included the Vinča culture (5700-4500 BC), known for its small figurines and copper smelting. An early example of potential writing was found on a wooden tablet dating to 5202 BC (Dispilio Tablet).

Major civilizations include the Aegean trio: Cycladic, Minoan, and Mycenaean, active from around 3200 BC until the end of the Bronze Age.

The Minoan culture, based out of Crete, is especially notable as “the first advanced civilization in Europe.” They had complex stonework and jewelry, a class of art-enthusiast aristocrats, and their architecture included frescoes and indoor plumbing. Unfortunately, their buildings haven’t held up well over time. And after their civilization declined, it wasn’t even “discovered” until 1878. The Minoans used limestone, gypsum, clay, and wood as primary building materials. Earthquakes and invasions also ravaged Crete.

Yet Minoan quality is undeniable and stands on par with the more famous Egyptian culture. Minoan stonework was precise enough that multi-story buildings could be put up without using mortar. The Palace of Knossos covered 3-5 acres and had over 1,000 rooms. There’s at least one example of a flushable toilet in their surprisingly complex system of indoor plumbing.

We get the “minotaur” labyrinth myth from this region.

The city of Troy, known for its role in The Iliad and The Odyssey, dates back to 3000-2500 BC. There are several “versions” of Troy excavated in multiple archeological layers, so we aren’t 100% sure which one is the city of legend.

The Mediterranean was always a flashpoint of cross-cultural contact. It connects southern Europe, northern Africa, and the Middle East. You can see this influence in the art of each culture, as they traded ideas. The empires of Alexander The Great, and later the Roman Empire, gave rise to even more intermingling as these cultures connected under unifying forces.

The End of the Bronze Age

There was a sudden period of upheaval known as the Bronze Age Collapse in 1200 BC. Historians don’t agree on a singular cause for this. It was likely a combination of factors, including a legendary “Sea People” wreaking havoc in the Mediterranean.

This aftermath isn’t well documented and the period is called the “Greek Dark Ages” by historians. This era ended in 776 BC with the first Olympic Games, created by Hercules according to one myth.

Despite these “dark ages,” the Mediterranean came back bigger than ever. We’ll have more to discuss in the follow-up to this article.

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The Assyrians were the biggest winners during the collapse and they have the most consistent records of the time period. They eventually expanded to “empire” status, even conquering Egypt, and covered much of the Near East at its height.

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Font Psychology

Different typefaces carry certain connotations. As previously mentioned, sans-serif is more modern, serifs are more traditional, and variations can be somewhat in-between.

Some examples:

Tech companies like Meta/Facebook often use sans-serif typefaces with blue colors. This emphasizes “trust,” as ironic as it might be.

If we mix up the typefaces being used, the messaging of a logo becomes radically transformed.

Weight and width also come into play. Thinner fonts tend to be more formal.

When it comes to brand guides, they’ll usually have 2-3 typefaces listed. It’s rare for a brand to have one typeface that they use regularly across all materials. It’s more common to have different use cases for each—headlines, emails, etc.

A mix-and-match between typefaces is a great way to level up your visuals. This can add to the aesthetics of what you’re doing while expanding the meaning of your messaging.

Doing mix-and-match with typefaces within the same word or phrase is on the rise, but it has to be done carefully. Having multiple typefaces in general has always been around. For that, we get to font pairings.

Font Pairings

Old books and posters did this the bad way: by throwing everything a shop had into one design. Carelessly dumping a bucket of typefaces into a single piece produces a mess.

In contemporary design, we know how to optimally pair typefaces. We’re even building systems to do it automatically. Some websites claim to do AI-powered pairings, but AI still isn’t real and can’t match an actual designer’s skill.

Still, we’re getting close. One of the best examples is FontJoy. It’s been around for a while. The results are hit-or-miss, so if you use FontJoy, you may want a designer to double-check your choices. Other choices include ColorsAndFonts.

The most common pair is serif with sans-serif. One as a header and the rest as body type. Having more than 2-3 typefaces can potentially be confusing for viewers, and it’s harder to match them up.

You don’t want typefaces that appear too similar, otherwise you don’t get enough visual contrast. It’d be a waste of time to try. For example, pairing Open Sans and Myriad Pro. You might be able to get around this by using different weights and styles to create additional contrast, but in that case, it’s easier to stick with one typeface.

Neither do you want typefaces that are too dissimilar, otherwise it appears jarring and ridiculous. It wouldn’t have aesthetic value. For example, pairing Papyrus and Eurostile.

Although in this case, 99% of people should delete “Papyrus” from their hard drive anyway. There are almost zero situations in which it’s appropriate.

The Goldilocks Zone in typography is to have pairings with similar elements or design features, yet are visually distinct. Factors include weight, letterform shape, x-height, and serif design (if any).

One can be extremely autistic here.

Identifying Fonts

The original way to do this was with type books. A modern example is the Thames & Hudson Type Selector by Michael Worgotter.

It requires a good eye though, it’s time-consuming, and books aren’t comprehensive. New typefaces are constantly coming out. This can be a fast way to get through common fonts even if it’s less than ideal.

Sites like Identifont have tried to streamline this, but it’s not perfect. Especially since many brands now have custom typography.

Automatic identification can be done in programs like Adobe Photoshop, or web services like WhatTheFont or FontSquirrel. Also imperfect, but you can at least quickly get within the same ballpark.

Identifying web fonts is the most simple. Right-click, view source, then scroll or ctrl+F the HTML/CSS to see what they’re using. Twitter for example includes the possibility of using Roboto and Helvetica. Or look for a browser extension to do this automatically.

Color and Contrast

Don’t forget to keep things visible. Dark text on light backgrounds or light text on dark backgrounds. Appropriate sizes, styles, and image resolutions.

Readability and legibility are a top priority for non-decorative text. Typography is meant to be seen and understood with little to no friction.

Miscellaneous Ideas

Typography is center stage in writing, of course, but it can go beyond that. ASCII art and concrete poetry, for instance. Some designs are nothing but text.

Typography is everywhere.

Conclusion

Typography is versatile and there’s a ton of freedom with what you can do. This freedom does come with responsibility though. Knowing how, when, and why to use certain typefaces elevates designs from a homemade appearance to a professional one. 

A “design” isn’t just layout and imagery. Graphic design is a massive interwoven system of rules and guidelines, with creative freedom on top of that. There are objective standards for “good” design, as much as some people proclaim the opposite.

Aesthetics matter. I don’t make the rules.

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This is a reader-supported publication. For further support of my work:

• I sell physical artwork at ApolloGallery.org with more to come

• I have a masterlist of 100+ AI-related tools

• You can hire me for graphic design work

One author compared it to sculpture–it isn’t just the shape, but material and space around the construct too. Typography is the art of arranging letters, words, and lines, as well as their size and shape, to communicate ideas while emphasizing legibility and readability. Unless you have a brand where that isn’t the aim, and words are more decorative than anything else. But you have to know the rules before you can break them.

These days, non-industry people use “font” and “typeface” interchangeably. In most cases, people are discussing typefaces–the collective letters and glyphs of a unified design. “Font” refers to the variants (size, weight and style) of a specific typeface. Eg, “Times New Roman” is a typeface while “Times New Roman MT Bold Italic” is a font.

Don’t sweat it if you mix these up. In the modern age, no one really cares except type designers and the biggest nerds. It’s just semantics, and we all know what you mean.

A Brief History of Typography

There’s an argument to be made that typography began when writing systems first emerged. The earliest developed between 5000 and 3000 BC. Clay tablets, wood engravings, seals, etc.

Most famous are cuneiform and hieroglyphics. The question is whether aesthetics factored into their invention, or if they were purely utilitarian. I think we can assume the former. Especially with the Egyptians.

The first true alphabet is likely the Phoenician alphabet (Early Linear Script) invented shortly before the 1200 BC Bronze Age Collapse. Written Chinese developed around the same time, and calligraphy became popular as solid standards emerged, especially after 220 BC.

Side note: calligraphy is handwritten, usually in ink, with an emphasis on aesthetics and irregular appearance for each character. Typography is a more formal and standardized system, even if some types of calligraphy are standardized in their own way.

The Western Latin alphabet developed in ancient Rome. As the Roman Empire came into being and soon conquered a vast swath of the Earth, many cultures adopted or integrated this alphabet. It persisted even after the empire’s collapse, in part because of multiple Greco-Roman revival movements and the Christian Church.

You may have seen this chart floating around the internet:

“Modern” typography began with the printing press and lead-based movable type, as invented by Johannes Gutenberg around 1440 AD. Gutenberg wasn’t the first to invent movable type (the Chinese for example had it over 400 years prior) but he was the first to arguably “perfect” the craft. His way of casting type in lead was easier and more durable than previous systems. Gutenberg even fired out innovations in ink and paper.

A “printing revolution” followed. It created a feedback loop: more books led to increased literacy, which increased the demand for books. Europe is thought to have printed 20 million books in the first 100 years of the press, and over 150 million in the following century.

The written word received vast and unprecedented attention. Typography evolved alongside printing presses and other inventions. The first big change was moving from Blackletter to Roman styles to increase legibility.

Things see-sawed and yo-yo’d from there. Designers threw every idea they had at the wall. Many stuck. Those that did were refined to reach their full potential.

By the 1980s, designers had software to create digital typefaces. And that’s where we still are, more or less. Typography is a pretty traditional art because typefaces are already well-optimized. There isn’t much room for true innovation in the field. Even new fonts are generally slight modifications of older designs.

Now let’s turn up the autism. Wtf makes a typeface, really?

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Classifications

Typefaces fall into 5 main categories:

1. Serif (has pointy or bulbous ends on letters - or for Slab Serif, blocky ends on letters)

2. Sans-Serif (no ends on letters)

3. Blackletter (Medieval style)

4. Script (calligraphy-inspired style)

5. Display (generally more decorative than functional, may not be legible, and not intended for use in things like emails or essays)

Serifs are the most formal, with slab serifs as slightly more casual and modern.

Sans-serifs are the most modern and least formal.

There are MANY more specifics here (such as subcategories) but for now, time to move on. We don’t need a 10,000 word email going out.

Other style considerations include weight and whether the typeface is monospaced or proportional. Weight is how thicc your letters are, as shown below:

Proportional typefaces vary how much space goes around each glyph. Something thin like an “i” will have less space than an “o,” for example. Monospaced type has the same space no matter what.

Letterform Anatomy

Each part of a letter has its own name and design rules.

For brevity, here’s a guide from Vis.me (you may have to zoom in)

Or check Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typeface_anatomy

Most people don’t have to consider this information. Even entrepeneurs don’t need to know the difference between an ascender and cross bar. What’s more important is the next section:

Leading and Kerning

Kerning (“tracking”) is the space between letters. Some typefaces will automatically adjust, to an extent, while others need manual adjusting for optimal aesthetics. (Remember: proportional vs monospace)

Kerning practice: https://type.method.ac/

 Leading is the space between lines.

Side note: avoid “orphans.”

I did a short thread about this a while back.

Conclusion: Application and Branding

Pulling this all together: typography is the aesthetics of words, with a long history, and falls into a few major categories. Which category you use depends on your goals. If you’re writing an essay, go for a serif. If you’re banging out an email, sans-serif all the way. Etc. Then if you’re making your own stuff: notice the kerning, leading, and orphans.

And don’t forget other design principles like visual heirarchy, color palettes, and contrast.

Fonts are a massive topic with countless books written about them. Stranger-than-fiction news, such as a story about a man who spent four years recreating a typeface lost in a bitter rivalry. Small details, like choosing OpenType versus TrueType. (Open is more flexible, as one might expect from the name.)

But as with all things, we have the 80/20 rule: 80% of what you need to know is in this brief introduction to typography. I try to keep things efficient. For entrepeneurs and start-ups, typography doesn’t have a huge impact beyond the basics. It's mostly just serif vs sans-serif depending on how your brand should appear to the world. You can find many free fonts at Google Fonts.

Brands use a number of differentiating factors. Though for more about branding, I already have an article written.

Overall: typography is an integral part of messaging, both subliminal and explicit. What will you do to help bring that messaging to life?

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This is a reader-supported publication. For further support of my work:

• I sell physical artwork at ApolloGallery.org with more to come

• I have a masterlist of 100+ AI-related tools

• You can hire me for graphic design work

The main current trend is to have things loosely based on 90s aesthetics: more color, more personality, and less polish. Recent years saw a huge push for minimalism, heavily polished designs, globalism, and debranding. The pendulum is swinging the other way now. What people want now = comfort and authenticity.

Graphic design trends

Depending on the person/brand, there are three main schools of thought driving simultaneous trends.

1. Looking back

2. Looking to the now

3. Looking forward

In all cases, there’s a renewed emphasis on color, illustrations, and typography, making things bigger and bolder.

Looking back

There’s a large shift toward 80s/90s nostalgia and retro designs, including candy-inspired colors and pastels or muted colors. Bold choices, bigger fonts, wonky patterns with geometric shapes, etc. Things can continue to be relatively minimal, or brands can push the envelope toward maximalism, or designers can look for a balance between the two.

Things like vaporwave are a bit played out in certain spheres, but they’re still an indicator of what people are thinking about. Some artists go more recent to the Y2K era, but that’s not really old enough to be nostalgia bait.

Looking to the now

Keywords: local, handcrafted, artisan, homemade, DIY, natural, handwriting, earth tones, small batch, farmer’s market, craft fair, etc.

At the small business end, this is the “my neighbor/friend made this beautiful ___” category. Emphasizing authenticity and community.

At the corporate end, it’s more in line with past trends of minimalism. They don’t show a DIY approach other than maybe hand-drawn illustrations that don’t appear to be stock imagery. Maybe a new retro-inspired color palette. What they’ll usually focus on is the “eco-friendly” approach with simplified designs and colors, less packaging, etc. Environmentalism and social causes are a big focus for corporations because of DEI and ESG nonsense.  Hopefully that’s on the way out too, as big business focuses on profit margins during the economic downturn.

Looking forward

The digital frontier of NFTs, blockchain, and the Metaverse are driving some ideas. This actually includes some elements of looking back, like vaporwave and punk styles. People are trying to push the envelope, sometimes with “anti-design” thoughts like glitch, grunge, surrealism, psychedelia, asymmetry, unusual colors, clashing stylistic choices, etc. The key is experimenting with different principles.

3D is big too: 3D lettering, objects, and illustrations, often abstract or collage-like or within patterns. Some people mix 3D or animation with 2D elements.

Large corporate brands aren’t really going for this because it’s not “safe” enough. At most they’ll add more color, including gradients and holographic appearances. They’re most likely to hit on the nostalgia angle.

Overall 

Nothing is perfectly cut-and-dry. Designers may mix and match from multiple trends or schools of thought. The common thread is color and personality making a comeback.

There’s an interesting push-pull going on between maximalism and minimalism. There are several different lines of thought here. Maximalists are drawn to the nostalgia/retro trends; influences come from cyberpunk, vaporwave, collages, the psychedelic, etc. Minimalists prefer simplicity, comfort, and classical stylings. Both can include a heavy emphasis on color. The former tend to use broad palettes, while the latter stick to a few bold color choices.

In all cases, there’s more experimentation in finding the next big trend in typography. Recent trends have been logo-based, with debranding and a newer push against it. Type is next up to bat, except it’s a little more wild. Some people may look to Art Nouveau and Art Deco for inspiration. Others mix and match styles for visual breaks. Some people called this “twisted typography.” Partially cut off text is another option.

Interior design trends

Previously, people were going nuts for design trends like Modern Farmhouse, minimalism, open-floor plans, etc. Of these, minimalism is now the most disfavored.

We haven’t swung over to maximalism though. We now have a pretty fair balance.

2022-2023 is bringing more influences from the outdoors. Earth tones (especially green, blue, and brown) and plants, organic materials for natural warmth, more wood, curved shapes, more textures, etc. 

Bold colors appear in homes too, not just branding. Many homes still have an emphasis on neutrals and grays, but they’re cold and increasingly unappealing. Minimalism isn’t comfortable. Boxy Ikea-type stuff is out (it always has been, in my opinion) and there’s less focus on purely functional aesthetics. Form matters too. Always has.

Like in graphic design, there’s also a push for authenticity in having a home that feels lived-in, with unique decorations from local artisans or otherwise handcrafted goods. Cheap mass-produced junk is out. There may be country-specific themes for people who didn’t get to travel as much as they would’ve liked in recent years. Or mixing and matching from different regions.

There’s more emphasis on the mood a room can create. They may vary compared to each other - cozy living room, energetic study, calm bedroom, etc. A home can mix materials and styles even in the same room, not just different rooms. This ties in with the eclectic collage style in graphic design, except more reasonable. People aren’t snatching up useless knick-knacks. That went out of style decades ago.

Some people are going for nostalgia and picking up furniture with vintage appeal. The vintage era depends on the person’s taste and can be from any decade. Unlike graphic design however, interior decorating is more likely to look at the 60s/70s than 80s/90s. (Unless it’s something like a gaming room.)

Overall there’s still lasting influences from minimalism. A modern home is neat and balanced - not so minimalistic that it’s sterile, and not so busy that it appears cluttered. Much more moderate than graphic design, which is freer to be overly expressive.

Fashion design trends

Frankly I don’t pay much attention to what’s happening in fashion. BowTiedGerman is keeping a closer eye on which way the winds are blowing in the fashion department.

Although some things come in and out of style, I believe 80% of fashion can be timeless. Be in shape, wear well-fitting clothes, keep it simple and high-quality, etc. Get your foundations in order and expand from there.

Being in shape continues to be a status symbol. That’s not going away, especially as obesity rates rise.

In the broader sphere of things, there’s still a push toward comfort, which began with the pandemic. Athleisure, looser fits, etc. As with graphic design and interior design, there’s more emphasis on color than neutrals, and a bit of retro style.

The world of aesthetics is constantly in flux. I’m thinking I should do a trend writeup like this every 6-12 months. What do you think?

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• I sell physical artwork at ApolloGallery.org with more to come

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Read it? Great. Now, you might be wondering which museums to visit and how.

Almost anywhere is fine, as long as it has a large and varied collection. Ideally you want to head to a place that’s easily accessible. The more convenient the location, the faster you can get started. If you live in the middle of nowhere, you might have to hop on a plane or go on vacation for best results. Depends on your personal situation.

Non-art museums can work too. They just don’t have the same level of variety and aesthetic value, generally speaking.

Where to go

Here’s an incomplete list of recommendations that I vouch for. There are many other options, but I think the below should be at the top of everyone’s list. In some cases you’ll need multiple days if you want to see the entire collection.

East Coast USA

• Metropolitan Museum of Art (The Met) in New York 

• Philadelphia Museum of Art in Pennsylvania

• National Gallery of Art in Washington DC

West Coast USA

• Getty Museum in Los Angeles

England

• British Museum

• National Gallery

• Victoria and Albert Museum

Northwest Europe

• The Louvre in Paris

• Musée d'Orsay in Paris

• Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam

Southern Europe

• Literally anywhere in Italy or Greece should be good

Mexico

• Museo Soumaya, Mexico City

• Chapultepec Castle, Mexico City

This should be a fair starting point. Canada isn’t real btw

Let me know in the comments if you have recommendations. My experience outside of Europe and North America is limited.

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Where NOT to go

Heavily specialized collections aren’t good for decision-making because they’re so limited. European castles for example are great to visit, yet will never be on the same level as The Louvre in terms of art. Even within the same city, the Morgan Library and The Met aren’t on a comparable scale.

I also disavow all contemporary art collections because they have little to no aesthetic value. Some pieces may have meaning, but they’re not beautiful - so if you can get meaning WITH beautiful art, then it’s utterly pointless to see ugly art even if it may have some utility.

Some museums I don’t recommend for most people:

• MoMA - NYC, USA

• Whitney Museum - NYC, USA

• Dia:Beacon - Beacon, USA

• Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles, USA

• Tate Modern - London, England

• Guggenheim - Bilbao, Spain

• Palacio de Bellas Artes - Mexico City, Mexico

These might be worth one visit but they aren’t as valuable as going elsewhere.

How and when to go

Look up other nearby attractions and restaurants if you expect to spend a full day in the area.

Some banks give free access to museums. 

Bank of America has an Arts and Culture program. “Museums on Us is available to Bank of America, Merrill or Bank of America Private Bank (U.S. Trust) credit or debit cardholders during the first full weekend of every month. One free general admission is limited to the individual cardholder.” Museums may be busier than usual at these times.

Citigold private clients can access 7 institutions for free, but they’re not the best options.

Capital One Venture X holders can get 6 free months of membership to The Cultivist. This allows free access to 100+ museums around the world (with up to 3 guests) along with a few minor benefits, including virtual studio visits.

There’s also Smithsonian Museum Day. One day a year, you can get access to many museums for free. The most recent was Saturday, September 17th, 2022. Museums can be overcrowded on days like this, so it’s not recommended unless you’re on a limited budget.

If you plan to visit multiple museums in a year, consider membership. Not only does this support the museum, it can streamline your travels. Many upper-tier museum memberships allow members to visit other places for free.

The most common reciprocal museum programs are:

• NARM (North American Reciprocal Museums Program)

• ROAM (Reciprocal Organization of Associated Museums)

This lets you enter 1,000+ North American museums and historical sites for free. (You may still need to book advance reservations, so keep an eye out.)

The least expensive option I know about is the Penn Museum’s “Friends and Family” $150 tier. This includes entrance to the Frick Museum, Valley Forge, Washington Crossing, and many more in NARM and ROAM. This membership is fully tax-deductible and isn’t location-based. Anyone in the US can buy membership.

For even more options, Ringling’s $200 membership tier gives access to: 

• North American Reciprocal Program (NARM)

• Reciprocal Organization of Associated Museums (ROAM)

• Museum Alliance Reciprocal Program (MARP)

• Southeastern Reciprocal Membership Program (SERM)

The Philadelphia Museum of Art’s “Keystone” membership tier ($250 with $186 being tax deductible) includes admission to The Met and 50+ other museums. The Met has a similar program except it’s more than double the price for some mysterious reason (hint: it’s NYC).

My favorites are The Metropolitan Museum of Art and the Philadelphia Museum of Art. If you’re visiting either NYC or Philadelphia, it’s simple to get between both of them (Amtrak, bus, etc). If you get both the Philadelphia Museum of Art and Penn Museum memberships, for $400 total, that covers 2-4 people for 12 months at over 1,000+ locations. This more than pays for itself after a few trips, and $336 is tax-deductible.

Donating more money has more benefits, of course, if you’re able and willing. This gives you more influence to prevent nonsense oozing into museums, and you’ll have access to similarly wealthy patrons.

Museums are good for all socioeconomic classes. Whether you’re a family on a budget, or a philanthropist willing to drop $25,000 for one year, there are plenty of benefits for both.

Bonus tip: American National Parks

There are 2,000+ parks and wildlife refuges in the United States. The annual pass is $80 and covers 2-4 people, depending on which parks you’ll visit. Some people (such as active or retired military) can get free passes.

Conclusion

Find a nearby place with a variety of works that spans hundreds of years of history. It should take less than an hour to get there, and more than an hour to see the entire museum. Don’t be a tourist. Really absorb what you see and reflect upon it.

If you can’t decide which museum to visit, check out The Met or Louvre, depending on which hemisphere you reside in.

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This is a reader-supported publication. For further support of my work:

• I sell physical artwork at ApolloGallery.org with more to come

• I have a masterlist of 100+ AI-related tools on Gumroad

• You can hire me for graphic design work

What a brand *is* has expanded over the years. More flexibility, more comprehensive; both complex and simple. At its core, it’s a way to quickly and distinctly communicate what you’re all about. Most people associate branding with logos and other imagery. It’s more like a persona; there are physical and emotional elements at play.

If you don’t define your brand properly, others will, and that’s an unnecessary risk. Public perceptions will shape how (or if) anyone does business with you. A bad brand, with negative emotional triggers, is a death sentence. You have to throw it out and start over with a new name.

Corporations compile everything into a Brand Guide. Personal brands may wish to do this too. It becomes a handy reference, especially as you scale, and maintains consistency. VAs or employees can easily see what you’re trying to do and how/why.

A traditional brand (identity) guide only shows visuals:

• What the logo is (including its variations)

• How to logo can and can’t be used (inc clear space)

• Color choices

• Typography choices

• Stylistic choices for content creation and communication

That’s it for basics. Maybe some examples (like t-shirt mockups) and dos/don’ts in stock photography. More comprehensive guidelines could have multiple identity guides, copy guidelines, patent information, email signature formatting, etc.

It depends how specific you want to be. Guidelines can be one page or dozens of pages. I know one company which lists how phones should be answered and what voicemails should say.

Yahoo is an example of being unusually specific with tone and style. Here’s one of the 108 pages in their brand guide:

Logos have been de-emphasized in recent years (also see: debranding) yet remain important. It’s a visual identifier for your brand. It instantly communicates what you’re about, to an extent.

Logos and profile pictures are generally designed in accordance with consumer expectations for a business. Different companies do different things. You wouldn’t expect a fashion house to look like a construction company, or a pet food supplier to have a logo in the style of a big bank. This would confuse people.

Stylistically, logos fall into certain “genres.” This includes wordmarks, letterforms, heraldic, abstract, and more. I’ll cover this in a future article.

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There may be different designs for one logo: vertical formats, horizontal formats, dark backgrounds, light backgrounds, small formats, large formats, etc. For example, a logo may be simplified for mobile devices or websites, compared with posters and billboards.

Typography has its own expectations. 

• Sans-serif = relatable and modern

• Serif = traditional and upscale

• Etc.

Color psychology has more subconscious associations.

• Red = passion, energy

• Green = nature, money

• Blue = trust, wisdom

• Yellow = low-budget, cheerful

• Black = luxury, serious

• Etc.

Silicon Valley is a big fan of blue (Facebook/Meta, Twitter, etc.)

More about color psychology:

The Gallery of Apollo

Art School Week 1: Color Theory and Psychology

Today we’re starting with the basics of art. This is part of the foundation for making content that looks good. When developing a brand, you want to invoke certain emotions in the target audience while retaining visual consistency in content. Content should be visible on websites and social media. No clashing colors or garish nightmares (unless that’s so…

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5 years ago · 3 likes · BowTiedApollo

Dos and don’t on color usually reference contrast and/or clashing combinations.

Messaging falls in line with color. Is your brand friendly and optimistic? Serious and straightforward? Snobbish? Bold and controversial? Etc. These work together to create a believable experience for customers.

It’d be confusing to people if your logo was friendly, colors were bold and aggressive, and messaging/tone was monotonously matter-of-fact. “I don’t understand what’s going on here, I’ll leave and check out someone else instead.” Even if they can’t articulate why, people can sense mismatches and fakery.

After the visual/communication aspects, it gets more nebulous. Some companies even have specific sounds, like Electronic Arts or THX.

All B2B/B2C needs to stand out among a sea of competitors, and branding is where the magic happens. This is especially true after dropshipping took off. When over a dozen people are selling the exact same product, how do they set themselves apart? Branding and positioning are the most obvious.

Many companies have a set of values and goals for employees to emphasize. ESG and “sustainability” is the current trend.

Branding guidelines in the wild

Let’s take a quick look at examples of how various entities approach branding.

Fairfield University’s brand guide says:

“Fairfield University’s ability to carry out its mission can be helped or hindered by the perceptions of the people it seeks to serve. Its visual image – the appearance of the University’s brochures, advertisements, and other materials – says something about its values, purpose, and services. A cohesive graphic style conveys a sense of identity and personality, which helps to create greater recognition and understanding. In addition to its image-enhancing value, a carefully managed visual identity program actually saves time and money. By applying these simple guidelines, stylistic decisions may be made quickly, efficiently, and cost-effectively. Consistent application of the standards outlined in this manual will help enhance Fairfield University’s visibility, image, and reputation.”

Fordham University’s guide states: 

“Necessary to our advancement is the clear and direct association of all of the University’s schools, departments, programs, centers and institutes with each other and with the symbols that have been the graphic expression of the heritage, values and traditions of the University for 165 years.”

However, neither guide clearly says what those values and ambitions actually ARE.

You can see in the visuals that both Fordham and Fairfield have upscale tradition-oriented branding (serif fonts and heraldic/shield type icons). The red and black colors convey confidence, strength, and a passion for their mission(s).

The brand guide for Keurig Donut Shop Coffee begins with:

“We are playfully irreverent providers of simply delicious coffee. From our vibrant packaging (and delightfully decadent logo) to our cheerfully uncomplicated coffee, we take pride in producing straightforward, full-flavored coffee that isn’t afraid to sprinkle a bit of fun into daily life. Because we believe great coffee is best served – and best enjoyed – with a smile.”

This is a viewpoint which affects all aspects of the brand: customer service communications, color psychology, etc. Their keywords are: Fun, Playful, Friendly, Straightforward, Uncomplicated, Outgoing, Lighthearted. They even list antonyms.

Keurig carefully showcases their target demographic and how they like their coffee, along with other insights. If you want to see a comprehensive and effective brand guide, this is a must-read. You may be able to find a PDF online.

Lenovo’s key words and phrases:

• Moving forward

• Progressive

• Always seeking a better way

• Dynamic

• Digital-first

• Attitude

• Energy

• Vibrant

• Enthusiasm

• Bold

• Relentless

Now, whether Lenovo successfully communicates this to its audience is a different story. I’ve never heard anyone say “wow I love Lenovo, they’re so fun!” But their brand guide does attempt to reflect their goals (as best as a massive corporation can, anyway).

Microsoft is another one which stumbles. Their 2013 brand guide says “The new Microsoft logo is familiar and welcoming, drawing upon the heritage of our brand values, typeface, and colors. The symbol is built for the digital world, supporting the diversity of our businesses, representing and endorsing our products and services.” 

A group of squares coupled with a sans-serif font isn’t particularly “welcoming.” The guide does have interesting information (grid system, color palettes, etc) but like many other brands doesn’t explicitly address brand values. They get close in “what we want people to think” except it’s generic corporate talk and the last line is “it feels like Microsoft” which is meaningless. “What do you think about Microsoft?” “It’s Microsoft!” K.

For a final example, let’s look at TechnipFMC. This is another comprehensive guide, although slightly less than Keurig’s. They list their vision, purpose, commitments, and methods of expression.

Personal brands can be more expressive and flexible than corporate brands. Both still share many of the same elements. 

It’s not set in stone either way. Rebranding (or a refresh) is a necessity every 5-10 years to keep up with the times. New technologies, new consumer sentiments, etc. Don’t be that credit union who hasn’t updated their website since 1993. It’s not just job security for designers like myself. There are always potential improvements. 

What is the Apollo brand?

Admittedly, I’ve been somewhat inconsistent so far. Picking semi-random fonts, changing colors, etc. Still deciding which paths to take. But the core always remains the same:

Vision: To create a world which emphasizes beauty and strength (as opposed to contemporary society’s priorities) to uplift humanity. This can be accomplished through initiatives like proper humanities education and art appreciation drives.

Messaging and tone: Straightforward, honest, curious, optimistic, semi-professional

Colors: Gold (optimism, luxury, sun) and Blue (trust, bowtied, etc.)

Typography: Both serif (traditional, upscale) and sans-serif (modern) as a microcosm of my blend of both traditional beliefs and usage of contemporary technologies (such as cryptocurrency, NFTs, and WiFi money)

If I was to make a branding guide for myself, it’d start with these elements.

Maybe I’ll go over more in a future article. One doesn’t need to be a designer to appreciate design. Everything is branding, much like how everything is sales.

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This is a reader-supported publication. For further support of my work:

• I sell physical artwork at ApolloGallery.org with more to come

• I have a masterlist of 100+ AI-related tools

• You can hire me for graphic design work

Poetry (“verse”) is a concise method of written expression. Certain styles conform to different sets of rules. As such, it’s a great way to flex your creative muscles. How would you do X within the context of Y? Which words have the most impact?

This is especially valuable for sales and other communication-heavy roles. I guarantee that if you write one new poem per day, you’ll improve written and verbal skills over time. 

Poetry is also more aesthetic than standard writing (“prose”). The way lines and phrases are organized can be visually and audibly appealing.

I’m also a fan of the historical “warrior-poet” concept. Sun Tzu, Cao Cao, Miyamoto Musashi, Egill Skallagrímsson, Julius Caesar, Marcus Aurelius, Winston Churchill, George Patton, and other Chads. Reading and writing makes a person better in the quest for perpetual self-improvement.

Warrior classes throughout history were expected to do more than fight. Especially as war become the profession of a chosen few, and designation of nobility, like European knights and Japanese Samurai. Being a noble carried specific expectations, like participating in ceremonies, and evolved into concepts like Chivalry.

1. A well-rounded person should be able to dominate opponents both in physical combat and mental exercises.

2. Mind and body are connected.

“Adapt what is useful, reject what is useless, and add what is specifically your own.” ― Bruce Lee

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Where did poetry come from?

Oral literature has existed almost since the advent of speech itself. Stories, songs, speeches, and poems were passed down from generation to generation until writing was invented. Our earliest example is the Epic Of Gilgamesh and preceding Sumerian poems. Its themes and plot points seem to have influenced Homer and Biblical stories. 

Some believe that poetry was invented as a storytelling tool. If you know how one line is structured, you know how the next should go, and so on. Kind of like how “catchy” songs are easy to sing along with. (Also see: mnemonic devices.)

Ancient poets usually didn’t memorize epic poems because it’s too much content. Reciting a poem would be part improvisation. You’d follow certain story beats while using specific meter, rhythm, and diction. The combination of elements is what elevated poets above others.

What are the elements of poetry?

Meter - A line’s pattern of syllables, and potentially other factors. Repeated patterns are “feet.” For example, “Iambic pentameter,” introduced by Chaucer. Iambic is the foot (an “iamb” is a short/unstressed syllable followed by a long/stressed syllable) and “pentameter” means there are 5 feet per line. Each line typically has 10 syllables total (“decasyllabic verse”). Different numbers and variations have their own names.

Rhythm - How the meter sounds.

Diction - How the language is used. Underlying meanings, tones, grammar, etc.

Stanza - A group of lines. Small groups have names (“couplet” for two lines, “quatrain” for four lines, etc.) When it’s a whole bunch of lines, it’s a “verse paragraph.”

Rhyme scheme - If rhymes are present, this is how they’re organized. There are many many combinations here. ABAB, AABB, ABBA, ABCB, etc. For example, ABAB is common. Lines 1 and 3 rhyme with each other (A), while 2 and 4 rhyme (B). A Shakespearean sonnet goes like: ABAB CDCD EFEF GG.

Note that not all poems require rhymes or word-play like alliteration. It’s often about the structure and how it sounds when spoken. Or you can combine multiple choices. This is an art, after all.

What types of poetry exist?

The types of poetry are “forms.” A brief overview of the more popular forms:  

• Sonnet - Specifics vary by region/language. Usually a 14 line poem following a specific rhyme scheme.

• Ode - A three part poem on serious subjects.

• Villanelle - A 19 line poem of 5 triplets and a quatrain at the end.

• Limerick - A humorous 5 line poem with 5-10 syllables per line. Usually follows the AABBA rhyme scheme.

• Tanka - A 5 line poem (usually written as 1-2 sentences) with 31 syllables: 5/7/5/7/7. The haiku (5/7/5) is a version of this.

• Concrete - The poem is organized visually, like ASCII art, to express shapes and concepts through typography.

• Freeform/free verse/blank verse - You can do whatever you want. Critics say it’s lazy, while proponents say it’s more expressive.

Then we have various genres. This includes:

• Lyric - Short personal poems typically discussing feelings and thoughts.

• Epic - Lengthy narrative poems about heroes and myth.

• Fable - “Mythology lite” usually discussing morals, like in Aesop’s Fables.

• Satire - Pokes fun, ridicules, and/or criticizes. Often humorous social commentary.

• Elegy - A poem typically composed for funerals or mourning.

• Dramatic - A drama meant to be spoken or sung.

• Speculative - Science fiction, fantasy, or horror poems. (Speculative Fiction is the term for novels and short stories which deal with these subjects.)

• Light - Humorous and brief poems, often with a lot of wordplay.

• Slam - High-octane competitive poetry, similar to rap battles.

• Performance - Poems which include dance or other “performances.”

You can mix and match for interesting combinations. 

Who are the most famous poets?

There’s a lot of subjectivity in what people consider “good” poetry. (Slightly) less subjective is literary impact. The most famous Western writers are Homer (8th century BC) and William Shakespeare (1564-1616). The history of these two men is particularly interesting because of the mystery involved. Historians don’t know if each man was actually one man, or several going by the same pen name. We won’t be going down any rabbit holes today, though.

Famous modern poets from the 1900s/2000s:

• Rudyard Kipling (1865-1936)

• William Butler Yeats (1865-1939)

• Robert Frost (1874-1963)

• James Joyce (1882-1941)

• T.S. Eliot (1888-1965)

• Maya Angelou (1928-2014)

• Shel Silverstein (1930-1999)

• Sylvia Plath (1932-1963)

• Seamus Heaney (1939-2013)

Famous poets from the 1700s/1800s:

• Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832)

• William Blake (1757-1827)

• Robert Burns (1759-1796)

• William Wordsworth (1770-1850)

• Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834)

• Lord George Byron (1788-1824)

• Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822)

• John Keats (1795-1821)

• Alexander Pushkin (1799-1837) “the founder of modern Russian literature”

• Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807-1882)

• Edgar Allan Poe (1809-1849)

• Lord Alfred Tennyson (1809-1892)

• Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862)

• Walt Whitman (1819-1892) “the father of free verse”

• Emily Dickinson (1830-1886)

• Mihai Eminescu (1850-1889)

Other famous poets include:

• Snorri Sturluson (1179-1241)

• Dante Alighieri (1265-1321)

• Geoffrey Chaucer (1340s-1400) “the father of English literature"

• John Milton (1608-1674)

Chances are, you’ve heard of several (if not most) of the people here. 

One easy reference is the list of British Poet Laureates. Or you can look at the winners of the Nobel Prize in Literature.

Run a few names through Project Gutenberg to quickly refine your tastes for free. You’ll likely be drawn to certain styles/subjects over others.

Conclusion

This should serve as a fair starting point for anyone who wants to look into poetry. If this was a college Literature class, you’d spend several hours on the above.

Your homework is to read one poem and write one poem. Both tasks should take 30 minutes at most.

As always, if you’re unsure about something, feel free to DM me on Twitter or hit up your favorite search engine. This is a brief overview of what poetry is, how it’s defined, and why it’s important. And as a brief introduction, some details aren’t here. But you don’t need much to get started.

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This is a reader-supported publication. For further support of my work:

• I sell physical artwork at ApolloGallery.org with more to come

• I have a masterlist of 100+ AI-related tools

• You can hire me for graphic design work

Big thanks to Apollo for letting me talk about one of my favorite art forms: Opera. 

Don’t go yet… you may find that Opera holds a ton of surprises and enjoyment for your life, it’s just few people have been taught or properly introduced to the art form. This post can only serve as an introduction to help you start your journey. There is simply too much history, performances and opinions I have… that would be a book not a Substack 😂

Opera comes up frequently in pop culture. 

• The famous Pagliacci aria that plays during The Untouchables with Robert DeNiro. 

• When Andy Dufresne locks out the guards in The Shawshank Redemption and plays over the PA system for the inmates. 

• The aria Nessun Dorma was sung by Pavarotti at the Italian World Cup (the aria has since become like the Italian National Anthem in popularity). 

What if I told you that Opera is the art form that “character music” was derived from?

Yes, the Darth Vader theme, Indiana Jones… all of the popular movies that have assigned iconic music to specific characters, which adds depth to the viewing experience, was first done by a genius Opera composer. 

And one of the most beloved literature series was written, and directly inspired, by a man who grew up listening to opera. 

Find out who these composers are by reading through to the conclusion. 

So how the heck did I get into Opera in the first place? 

I grew up in a musical house but Opera was not part of the mix. I had a fantastic art and music appreciation teacher which heavily influenced my love for certain art and classical music, but again, Opera was not part of that. 

Finding opera was very much by chance and I still count it as one of the happiest accidents that has led to one of my favorite leisure activities. 

I was working 100+ hour weeks in my restaurant. I had zero balance in my life. A raging perfectionist combined with workaholic tendencies was adding up to success and accolades but I was pretty miserable internally. Stressed, edgy, anxious… you name it. 

Finally some people close to me approached me and basically said if I didn’t find a way to relax, unplug and recharge that I’d be asking for an early grave by stroking out or worse. Literally “find a hobby and have some chill time”. 

I had recently been watching a tv crime show and the lead character was a huge opera fan. Snippets of opera would play periodically and the character would reference events in the opera. This seemed interesting to me since I never understood opera but loved the snippets I was hearing. So I decided to try and learn something about opera and see if I enjoyed it. 

Having a naturally curious nature has helped me a lot. When I get interested in things I usually end up going down deep rabbit holes and really wanting to understand/appreciate what I’m trying to learn or study. (This also helped me become a world class cook). 

Once I entered the Opera world I became fascinated and enthralled with what I was hearing and seeing.

What makes Opera different?

Most people from the outside don’t see (or hear) that opera is one of the most immersive and expressive art forms known to man. Maybe the most. With Opera you are watching a story unfold, with characters who sing to melody with the back drop of an orchestra which provides the foundational music. 

You can see how this is different than going to a museum, listening to a symphony or watching a ballet. 

Opera has the ability to tap into our most primal emotions. Fear, Love, Anger, Tragedy are all on full display. Amplifying the human condition but on steroids… if you know what’s going on. It’s all in understanding the story and experiencing the music with it. 

The best composers write operas that draw in their audiences to form emotional attachments with the story and its’ characters. These works are timeless and why audiences still enjoy them hundreds of years later. 

Anatomy of an Opera

The Libretto 

This is the story that is written, which the composer then puts to music. A good libretto is like writing the perfect play but in a way that can be amplified by music. Each word and sentence matter a lot to the final outcome.  It was a very specific job back in the day to write librettos. 

Most opera librettos were not written by the composer. Verdi, Mozart, Puccini etc all used writers they worked with closely for their operas. One exception is Wagner who was a perfectionist and took on the task of writing the libretto and musical scores for his operas. 

You will find librettos written in primarily French, Italian and German. This coincides with the composers country of origin. Verdi- Italian, Wagner- German, and so on. 

When you download or purchase librettos half of each page will have the original language, then the English translation will appear next to it. (Most opera houses now project the translation atop the stage where the cast is performing).

The Score

Expressing a story with music brings emotion and depth in a powerful way. This is where the masters flexed their muscles. 

Just as plays are performed as Acts, operas also have acts and scenes. The composer will oftentimes write preludes, which are short musical introductions to set the mood of the scene you are about to  experience. 

In addition, the musical score is what sets up the singers success as they showcase solos during the performance referred to as Aria’s.

Composers often developed and imprinted their unique style into the operas. Hearing a Mozart opera is much different than a Verdi, which is much different than a Wagner. Wagner is the composer that really added to the number of musicians necessary for his operas resulting in  rich, deep and intense performances. 

This carries over into which singers can sing which composers (examples below). TLDR certain voice types do better with certain composers. 

In addition to the composers, the conductor of an opera will also take liberties with speed, intensity and overall tone of the particular performance. You can listen to the same opera but performed by 2 different conductors which sound very different. Some conductors are known for slowing down performances, others for bringing intensity, etc. 

The Cast

Tenor, Soprano, Baritone, Alto… if you’ve ever been in choir or music theory you’ll know these all refer to specific vocal ranges for the male and female members of the performance. 

In general, Tenor will be the male lead and Soprano will be the female lead. You will find that as you get into opera you will be attracted to some performers over others based on their vocals. 

Famous Tenors like Pavorotti, Lauritz Melchior, Jess Thomas all immensely talented but for different roles. 

Examples: Pavorotti has memorable performances in Verdi operas (like Rigoletto). For Wagner? No way. Jess Thomas (as Parsifal) and Lauritz Melchoir (as Siegfried) absolutely crush Wagner operas, but I wouldn’t want to hear them in Madame Butterfly. 

Famous Sopranos like Joan Sutherland, Leotyne Price, Renata Scotto, Maria Callas and Astrid Varnay all have beautiful voices but best for specific roles. 

Examples: Joan Sutherland shines in most Verdi. Astrid Varnay was one of the few sopranos that could handle the demands of Wagner. Renata Scotto takes the house down in Turandot and if Maria Callas isn’t the lead in Tosca it just isn’t the same. She owned that role.

The Production

Briefly, the production matters a lot. There are certain producers who take a lot “license” to update the story settings. They interpret and place the settings sometimes in bizarre and weird places that seem like the producer is just trying too hard. Using brutalism or shock stunts which, for me, ends of taking away from the original work. 

I’m not a fan of those productions. If you’re seeing an opera for the first time try and find a traditional or minimalistic production. 

I recall one performance of Madame Butterfly I attended that was very stripped down and minimal. But the aesthetic was very clean, and there was enough material/staging texture that it didn’t seem sparse at all. It was a great performance that was updated/modern but did not detract from the story at all. Those are productions I enjoy. 

For me, taking time out and starting a new opera was like escaping into another world. So what’s the best way to dip your toe in the opera world?

Starting in Opera

Your starting selections are important. Operas can range in time from 90mins to 5 hours. If you start with a 5hr Wagner performance, you’re likely going to miss a ton of detail and nuance, feel lost, like running a mental marathon instead of enjoying a piece of priceless art. 

Starting with Verdi & Puccini is highly recommended. Rigoletto, Aida, Madame Butterfly, Turandot, La Traviata, La Boheme would make a solid starting list. 

From there you can check out Mozart, Donizetti and others. Wagner is love or hate. You either fall under his spell of genius or you can’t stand it. 

I went into Wagner with an open mind after I had about 40 hours of opera listening experience under my belt. I fell hard for Wagner. To this day, I hold Wagner as the master of opera. Wagner is notoriously difficult for singers and there was a “Golden Age” of Wagner opera singers that was between the 1940’s and 1960’s producing some of the best vocals ever. I went down the historical recording rabbithole and added a bunch to my library. As you can see, there are serious rabbit holes you can go down in opera. 

Verdi and Puccini are also stunning composers… but Wagner is the ultimate for me. Not for everyone, but for me absolutely. Ironically, I was excited to get into Mozart opera but just never did much for me. While Don Giovanni is a wonderful opera, as is Marriage of Figaro, I don’t go back to those often; although I would go see a live performance gladly. 

My first opera was Rigoletto (Verdi) so that always holds a special place in my heart. This is a good place to start. I recommend listening to operas while reading along with libretto before seeing a live performance. Let your imagination work and focus on the music and libretto. I did this with probably 20 operas before I ever went to see my first live performance. 

Read the libretto synopsis before you begin. This will help give you a starting point for the story and characters of the opera. 

Then get some headphones (I got a nice set of Grado’s to listen with that I still love), or a good stereo/speaker setup… and let the opera suck you into a different world.  

Here’s 5 Legendary Opera recordings I suggest. (These should be available on Spotify, which also has a ton of older historic recordings if you want to continue down that route). 

1. Rigoletto (Verdi): Bonynge; Sutherland, Pavarotti, Milnes (London)

2. Tosca (Puccini): DeSabata; Callas, Di Stefano, Gobbi (EMI)

3. Il Barbiere di Siviglia/aka The Barber of Seville (Rossini): Chailly; Horne, Nucci, Ramey (Sony)

4. Madama Butterfly (Puccini): Leinsdorf; L. Price (RCA)

5. Don Giovanni (Mozart): Maazel; Raimondi, Te Kanawa (CBS) 

*You’ll see opera recordings listed first by title, then the composer in (), followed by the conductor; then cast, ending with the recording label in (). 

Conclusion

For those of you who made it to the conclusion 😉… the opera composer who first introduced character theme music was Richard Wagner. Called leit motifs these became a Wagner “signature” that added a powerful depth and experience as the character specific music is used not only when the character is on the stage, but also as a foreboding component at times when the character isn’t present but is alluded to. 

And the literature series inspired and written by a man who grew up listening to opera? 

None other than The Chronicles of Narnia by C.S. Lewis. As a boy, Lewis was an avid fan of Wagner’s “Ring Cycle” which I contend is still, to this day, one of the greatest musical achievements of all time. 

So this should be a good start to propel you into the world of opera… there’s still lots more we could talk about. If there’s interest I’m happy to answer questions or do another spot here on Apollo’s substack.

*The best resource I’ve found for restored classical and opera music is the Pristine Classical project. These sound engineers take historic recordings and remaster them to “pristine” quality. Some of my favorite recordings in my collection were remastered by Pristine. 

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Big thanks to Octopod for this massive write-up! It’s a great introduction for anyone new to Opera. Let us know if you’d like to see more. —Apollo

The main con is questionable pay. A design 9-5 is typically near the US median wage (currently around $50,000). Entry-level positions can be as low as $30,000. Striking out on your own is hit-or-miss and depends on your business acumen. Income as a hobbyist or freelancer is unreliable.

Payscale data for proof:

Projected job growth is low. It’s between -4% and +3% depending on source. Plus, the unemployment rate for designers is above-average (~10% vs the current 3.5%).

Surveys list designer job satisfaction somewhere between average and above-average. Not great, not terrible. Sometimes this is because corporate guidelines strangle creativity. It varies.

Fortunately, there are several advantages to pursuing design:

1. Graphic design is quick to pick up, especially for people who are already art-minded. You only need a few weeks to learn the basics if you’re dedicated. “Easy to learn, hard to master.”

2. Most design jobs can be done remotely. The money looks better if you find laid-back remote jobs and juggle 2-3 jobs at once. Or combine remote work with freelance.

3. Design applies to every industry and is always an in-demand skill. 

4. Graphic design is highly complementary: it combines well with other business-related skills.

5. It’s better than minimum wage jobs. You’ll learn transferable skills and get higher pay. 

6. Doesn’t require a degree or certificates (but they do help)

Design is a valuable skill that can be learned without much friction, and there’s no shortage of clients.

Dealing with recessions is iffy. On one hand, design is under-appreciated. “My nephew can do that in Microsoft Word, right?” On the other hand, business owners want any edge they can get over the competition. Superior brand positioning can increase conversion rates and other metrics. YMMV.

Low barriers to entry do create intense competition, so be warned. Especially with freelancing or remote work. Cons are similar to what I wrote about copywriting. You’ll compete with people around the world, including those who’ll do your job for half the price (or less). Many people try to DIY designs (even if they have no creativity) or use AI to save money/time. Thus, as a designer, “selling yourself” can be tough depending on how you go about it.

Many people also get into design because of passion. They’re often willing to settle for below-average pay if they can get their dream job. This drives down salary expectations. Most artists and aspiring artists are also allergic to money, and society doesn’t value art/beauty as much as it should. Before we get on a tangent though:

If money is your primary concern, you might want to look into other options. Don’t expect six figures from art. High-paying jobs include tech sales, investment banking, and cybersecurity.

Cybersecurity is one straightforward example. Study like a madman to get industry certifications (such as Security+ and Network+), then shotgun your resume to hiring managers in search of entry-level work. Cybersecurity is more of an in-demand field than graphic design and the pay is better. There are even free or nearly-free certification programs (Texas A&M, CCST, and (ISC)² CC as examples)

If you need money immediately, manual labor is likely fastest. Mow lawns, pressure wash houses, shovel snow, rake leaves, clean gutters, etc. People are rarely into this idea, yet if you’re low on options, you can get started in minutes or hours. Not weeks or months. Follow guys like BowTiedHandyman for more.

Personally, I don’t regret going into design. My current 9-5 is great. I’m paid well above average and have near-zero oversight. The job is relaxed enough for me to regularly write articles like this one. The field of design itself is enjoyable too. I like what I do, and know I have an impact, helping everyone from individuals to Fortune 100 companies.

It did, however, take me a while to break into graphic design. Art school is a scam. Compared to what I’ve learned in the real world, my bachelor’s degree is almost worthless. Only a handful of classes were worthwhile.

Now, with the internet, anyone can learn everything - at a fraction of the price. And that’s one goal here as Apollo. I’m going to share everything I know, because Colleges Are Zeros, and internet cartoons on Twitter can replace them.

Still thinking about graphic design? Let’s get started here:

The Gallery of Apollo

How To Become A Graphic Designer

If you’re in need of independent income, graphic design is potentially straightforward. It’s a high-demand versatile skill which applies to every industry. Everyone should know some of the basics. You don’t need college for it. I have a degree in graphic design and wouldn’t recommend it. A degree is expensive, takes years to complete, and doesn’t adequat…

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4 years ago · 5 likes · BowTiedApollo

This discusses the first steps, including tech requirements and likely costs.

Pick a niche. Learn its ins and outs. Aim for minimum viable competency, build a portfolio, and look for entry-level remote work.

In conclusion: “is graphic design right for me?” It depends. 

Are you…

• Interested in remote work that can scale?

• A creative type of person or someone with an art background?

• On a short-medium time scale for learning new skills?

• Uninterested in college?

• Not terribly concerned with the size of your paycheck as long as you can pay your bills?

• Ambitious enough to learn a new skill set that can be used in different ways?

• Disciplined enough to immerse yourself in self-study?

• Able to run Photoshop?

• Looking for a field where the robots can’t take over yet?

If yes to most of these, stay tuned.

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This is a reader-supported publication. For further support of my work:

• I sell physical artwork at ApolloGallery.org with more to come

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